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ESSENTIALS 




MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION is 
essential to the satisfactory operation of PACK- 
ING and COLD STORAGE PLANTS of 

any magnitude. 

AMMONIA type Refrigerating Machines 
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AMMONIA, as the REFRIGERATING 
CHEMICAL is essential to the operation of 
such machines. 

The BEST AMMONIA is essential to the 
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OPERATION of such machines. 

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pression; "PEERLESS" AQUA for Absorption 
machines, the oldest and most extensively used 
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PHILADELPHIA NEW YORK ST. LOUIS 

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Packing House 
Machinery 



We manufacture a complete line of ma- 
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Send for our catalogues listing the equip- 
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Packing House 

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A GENERAL REFERENCE WORK ON THE PLANNING, CONSTRUCTION 
AND EQUIPMENT OF MODERN AMERICAN MEAT PACKING 
PLANTS WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE REQUIREMENTS 
OF THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT AND A COM- 
PLETE TREATISE ON THE DESIGN OF COLD STOR- 
AGE PLANTS, INCLUDING REFRIGERATION 
INSULATION AND COST DATA. 
FULLY ILLUSTRATED. 



BY 

H. PETER HENSCHIEN. 

ARCHITECT. 




PUBLISHERS 

NTCKERSON & COLLINS CO. 



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Copyright 1915 
BY NICKERSON & COLLINS CO. 



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Ice and Refrigeration 



JAN 21 1916 

©CI.A420443 



PREFACE 



It has been the ami of the author m preparing this 
work, to present a complete treatise upon the subject, of 
practical value to those directly interested in the construc- 
tion and maintenance of packing plants and cold storage 
buildings. 

That there is a demand for such a work, has been 
evidenced to the author by numerous inquiries from archi- 
tects and owners, and also by the fact that there exists no 
similar work describing modern American methods and 
materials. 

The requirements of The Bureau of Animal Industry 
in Washington regarding the sanitary construction of 
packing plants, have been carefully considered by the 
author in presenting the illustrations and text pertaining 
thereto. 

The chapters on cold storage construction contain 
information which heretofore^ has only been available 
through a close study and investigation of existing build- 
ings or through scattered descriptions and discussions of 
this subject in current technical journals. 

In describing methods of construction, the author has 
drawn largely from his own observation and experience 
of what has been successfully tried and tested in actual 
practice, although much assistance has been obtained from 
prominent authorities in the various subjects mentioned 
in the work. A great deal of valuable information has also 
been derived from various books and publications to which 
reference has been made in the text. To all such the 
author gratefully acknowledges his indebtedness. 



4 PREFACE 

In a book of this character, illustrations are worth 
many pages of writing and the drawings have been pre- 
pared by the author with that object in view. Lengthy 
explanations have been avoided for the reason that the 
work will only interest those who already are more or less 
familiar with the subject, either from a technical or oper- 
ating standpoint. 

To make the book convenient for practical use and 
ready reference, the various subjects have been para- 
graphed in bold face type and carefully cross-indexed. 

H. Peter Henschien. 
Chicago, 111., September 1, 1915. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

CHAPTER I 

PACKING PLANTS 

Introduction. General Features and Requirements. Location. Ship- 
ping Facilities. Principal Requirements in Packing House Planning. 
Natural Light. Ventilation. Communication between Buildings. 
Column Spacing. Planning for Future Expansion. 

CHAPTER II 

PLANS AND DESCRIPTION OF A MODERN PACKING PLANT 

Capacity and Construction. Slaughter House. Pork Building. Beef 
Building. Manufacturing Building. Smoke Houses. Tank House. 
Fertilizer Building. Catch Basin. Boiler and Engine Room. Stock 
Yards. 

CHAPTER III 

PLANS AND DESCRIPTION FOR BEEF AND SHEEP KILLING 

PLANT 

Capacity 600 Cattle, 500 Sheep Daily. Description of Construction 
and Arrangement. Compound Lard Manufacturing. 

CHAPTER IV 

PLANS AND DESCRIPTION OF HOG KILLING PLANT 

Capacity and Construction. Slaughter House. Tank House. Fertilizer 
Building. Catch Basin. Boiler and Engine Room. Open Air Hanging 
Floor. Hog Cooler. Manufacturing Building. Smoke Houses. 

CHAPTER V 
PLANS AND DESCRIPTION OF A CHICAGO PACKING PLANT 

Capacity. Arrangement. Insurance and Cost. 

'~ CHAPTER VI 

KILLING FLOORS 

Cattle and Sheep Killing Floor. Detail of Cattle Killing Arrangement. 
Arrangement of Beef Offal Floor. Hog Killing Arrangement. Hog 
Cutting Room. 



6 TABLE OF CONTENTS 

CHAPTER VII 
PACKING HOUSE COOLERS 

Principle of Construction. Pipe Loft over Beef Coolers. Pipe Loft 
over Hog Coolers. Detail of Refrigerating Loft for Spray System. 
Curtain System. 

CHAPTER VIII 
TANK HOUSES 

Plans. Sections. Details of Construction and Equipment. Catch Basin. 

CHAPTER IX 
SMOKE HOUSES. 

Plans. Sections. Details of Construction and Equipment. Capacity. 

CHAPTER X 
STOCK PENS 

Construction. Runways. Capacity. Cost. 

CHAPTER XI 
LUMBER IN PACKING HOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 

Uses of Lumber. Rot in Lumber. Lumber Suitable for Packing 
Houses. Advantages of Resinous Wood. Specifications for Structural 
Timber. Preservation of Wood by Chemical Treatment. 

CHAPTER XII 

SANITATION, PLUMBING AND DRAINAGE 

Government Requirements. Toilet Rooms. Dressing Rooms. Floor 
Drains. Catch Basins. 

CHAPTER XIII 

COMMERCIAL COLD STORAGE BUILDINGS 

Introduction. Advantage of Cold Storage. Location and Shipping 
Facilities. Constt-uction Features. Fireproof Construction. Mill Con- 
struction. Ordinary Construction. Walls. Use of Concrete in Cold 
Storage Construction. Insulation and Its Influence on the Construction. 

CHAPTER XIV 

EXAMPLES OF RECENT COLD STORAGE CONSTRUCTION 

Plans, Description and Cost of Three Modern, Fireproof Buildings. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 7 

CHAPTER XV 

INSULATION 

Introduction. Importance of Good Insulation. Durability. Sanitation. 
Fire Resistance. Structural Strength. Finish. Insulating Materials. 
Construction Details. Pipe Covering. Lumber in Insulation. Insu- 
lating Paper. Plastering on Insulation. 



CHAPTER XVI 

REFRIGERATION 

Introduction. Compression Machines. Absorption Machines. Refrig- 
eration in Packing Houses. Refrigerating Pipes in Packing House 
Coolers. Details of Supports for Refrigerating Pipes. Defrosting 
Refrigerating Pipes. 



CHAPTER XVII 

COLD STORAGE DOORS 

Construction of Cold Storage Doors. Hardware. Insulation of Doors. 
Installation of Doors. Door Sills. Doors with Overhead Track. How 
to Order Cold Storage Doors. Refrigerator Door Bolted to Fire Door. 
Home Made Refrigerator Door. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

COLD STORAGE WINDOWS 

Types of Windows. Stationary Window. Hinged Window. Freezer 
Window. Fireproof Cold Storage Window. 



CHAPTER XIX 

FLOORS 

Packing House Floors. Wood Floors. Caulked Wood Floors. Asphalt 
Floors. Concrete Floors Laid Over Wood Floors. Monolithic Concrete 
Floors. Waterproofing Concrete. Concrete Floor Finish. Floor Hard- 
eners. Brick Floors and Runways. i 



CHAPTER XX 

CONSTRUCTION DETAILS 

Floor Gutters. Gutters in Concrete Floor. Wood Gutters. Gutters in 
Cellar Floors. Inserts in Concrete Ceilings. Detail of Overhead Track 
Support. Detail of Support for Shafting. Detail of Awning over 
Loading Court. 



8 TABLE OF CONTENTS 

CHAPTER XXI 

PAINTING 

Paints and Painting. Paints for Brick and Concrete Walls. Paints 
for Woodwork. Paint for Steel Work. Cold Water Paint. Whitewash. 



CHAPTER XXII 

INSURANCE AND FIRE PROTECTION 

Introduction. Area of Buildings. Fire Walls. Vestibules. Exposure. 
Outside Communication. Fire Doors. Fire Retarding Windows. Sky- 
lights. Recommendation Made by the Chicago Board of Fire Under- 
writers for the Construction of Packing Houses. 

CHAPTER XXIII 

ESTIMATES AND COST 

Preliminary Estimate. Prices. Installation of Equipment. Cost of 
Packing Plants. Cost of Cold Storage Buildings. Comparative Cost 
of Concrete and Mill Construction. 



CHAPTER XXIV 
MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 

Floor Loads. Table of Minimum Live Loads for Packing House Floors. 
Minimum Live Loads for Cold Storage Floors. Cold Storage and 
Freezing Temperatures for Various Products. Cold Storage Rates. 



CHAPTER XXV 

GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS 

Pertinent Extracts from the Regulations Governing the Inspection of 
Meat Packing Houses by the United States Department of Agriculture. 



CHAPTER I 
PACKING PLANTS 

Introduction 

The great progress made in the packing industry dur- 
ing the past few years is particularly noticeable with re- 
gards to buildings and equipment. The improvements 
along these lines are most apparent and far in excess of 
the natural progress of evolution, which is always found 
in any form of industry. 

When the Federal Meat Inspection Law was passed in 
1906, the packers were brought face to face with the fact 
that there was room for much improvement in their estab- 
lishments, and that the government intended that these 
improvements should be made. The law gave the United 
States Department of Agriculture legal power to supervise 
the sanitary conditions of all plants doing an interstate 
business. 

The Bureau of Animal Industry now requires that all 
packing plants, in which there is government inspection, be 
placed in a sanitary condition, satisfactory to the Bureau. 
It also requires that complete plans for new buildings be 
sent to Washington for their examination and approval, 
in advance of construction. 

The recommendation which the Bureau has made 
regarding construction, sanitation and* certain particulars 
of equipment must be carried out in all new work, and this 
has largely been the incentive that has led to the well con- 
structed and sanitary packing house buildings of today, 
where a high standard of cleanliness is maintained and 
where the working facilities are favorable both for man 
and product. 



10 PACKING PLANTS 

Before this law was enacted, packing houses were built 
with scant regard to sanitary conditions. The nature of the 
business compelled many owners to locate their plants out- 
side of city limits and frequently in the least desirable 
neighborhoods, if within the city limits. This attitude of 
the public largely influenced the owners to limit the outlay 
of capital invested in buildings and equipment. The plants 
were often poorly planned and constructed, and the mate- 
rials used were not of the kind best adapted to meet the 
requirements in a packing house. 

The result generally was that these plants were costly 
to operate and maintain and are now gradually being 
replaced by new buildings of more modern construction. 

To produce the best result in packing house planning, 
without unduly increasing the cost, requires an intimate 
knowledge of the conditions under which these plants are 
operated. The technical problems to be considered and 
the selection of the materials and equipment best suited 
for the purpose, are of such importance that only those 
thoroughly trained by experience and investigation can 
produce satisfactory results. 
General Features and Requirements 

Most of our present packing plants are the result of 
gradual growth and enlargement. Starting with small 
buildings, others have been added from time to time, often 
without regard to the best ultimate result in economy of 
operation. There are many of these establishments on 
which enough money has been spent in additions and 
repairs, to more than cover the cost of an entirely new plant. 
The profits of such plants are substantially reduced by 
high operating cost, upkeep and insurance. 

The modern packing house establishment of average 
size is made up of a number of buildings grouped together 
in a manner best suited to handle the business of each par- 
ticular plant, and there can be no set rules for the location 
of one building with relation to its neighbor. The require- 
ments of each establishment must be considered individ- 
ually. 



PACKING PLANTS 11 

Before deciding on the general features of a new plant 
a careful study should be made of the conditions and re- 
quirements confronting the new enterprise so that all imme- 
diate needs are taken care of, and future growth is provided 
for through practical and economical development of all de- 
partments. Careful study must be given to the arrange- 
ment of each individual building with relation to all other 
buildings and departments therein, so that products and 
materials are handled to the best advantage throughout 
the plant. 

It is, therefore, important that the designer be given 
a thorough working knowledge of the owner's business be- 
fore he attempts the planning of the entire plant. The 
importance of a practical arrangement from an operating 
standpoint is evident, when we consider that the labor cost 
in a packing plant is seventy-five per cent of the money 
expended in converting the raw material into a finished 
product; the other twenty-five per cent is for administra- 
tion expense, interest, depreciation and insurance. 

The selection of the site on which the establishment 
will be built, determines to a large extent, the arrange- 
ment of the various buildings with relation to each other. 

Where the property is located within city limits and 
bordered by streets, alleys, rivers, or by railroad tracks, 
the designer is often compelled to produce an arrangement 
which is far from ideal, and this accounts for many of the 
makeshift plants found in nearly every city. 

It is with the view of locating the plant on a suitable 
piece of land that the suggestions as to the most practical 
and economical arrangement of buildings are set forth. 
Location j 

Location is one of the first things to be considered 
when establishing a packing plant. 

In most of our larger cities there has been established 
a stock yards district where live stock is brought for sale 
and distribution, and it is within such districts or in their 
immediate vicinity, that the owner of a proposed new plant 
frequently must look for his location. Where plants are 



12 PACKING PLANTS 

established in or near a small city, a better selection of 
land is generally assured. 

It is of importance that the property selected should 
be that best suited for packing house purposes, and that 
the most necessary requirements from a building and 
operating standpoint are available. 

The modern packing house, more than any other man- 
ufacturing plant, requires ample room, good ventilation and 
sunlight, and should be located only where the surround- 
ings can be kept in a sanitary condition, and where the 
ground is dry and well drained. The site must have railroad 
connection and a good wagon road leading to the premises. 
There must be adequate sewer connection to carry away 
all surface water and sewage. 

An abundant supply of pure water must be available 
at all times, and particular attention should be paid to the 
source from which the water is obtained in order that it 
may be used without detriment in the preparation of meat 
food products. Chemical analysis should be made of the 
water to ascertain if it is suited as boiler feed water. 

The water problem has been of such great importance 
to the packing house industry in the past that we find many 
of the present establishments situated on or near the river 
banks of our cities, where water can be obtained at low 
cost, and the sewage carried away by the river. 

When considering the advantages of river location it 
should be remembered that such lands are frequently badly 
drained, and are subject to overflow when the rivers are 
flooded. 

During the flooded period business must be curtailed 
or suspended entirely, until the water subsides far enough 
to allow the cellars and sewers to be drained. 

The cost of constructing buildings on low grades, near 
a body of water, is increased by the additional foundations 
and waterproofing required to properly support and pro- 
tect the buildings. 

These facts should be considered by the owner in 
advance, and competent advice obtained regarding the 



PACKING PLANTS 13 

technical and sanitary difficulties to be anticipated on the 
location selected. 
Shipping Facilities 

Transporting the raw and manufactured products to 
and from the premises is one of the most important prob- 
lems to be considered in the arrangement of any large man- 
ufacturing plant. This is particularly so in a packing plant 
where the handling of perishable products makes it neces- 
sary that shipments are made with the least delay. When 
goods are ready to load in cars, there should be sufficient 
facilities to handle the entire shipment with dispatch as 
well as economy in labor. 

It is therefore advisable to provide railroad tracks at 
all shipping points of the plant, and the buildings should be 
arranged so that the shipping of one class of goods will 
not interfere with that of another. Where coal and live 
stock are brought to the plant in cars, separate tracks 
should be placed alongside the boiler room and stock pens, 
so that the cars may remain undisturbed until unloaded. 

Plants doing a large local business must have ample 
room for shipments by wagon, and the loading facilities 
arranged so that teams can drive up in front of the ship- 
ping room where local goods are made up ready for de- 
livery. 

These requirements are of first importance in prac- 
tically all establishments, and the simplest way of arrang- 
ing the plant is, therefore, to plac6 the buildings alongside 
two or more railroad sidings with shipping platforms run- 
ning the full length of the buildings. The wagon platform 
should be on the side most convenient to the roadway. 
Principal Requirements in Packing Hous^ Planning 

Of equal importance to the shipping problem is the 
grouping of buildings, so as to secure the greatest economy 
in the labor cost of transferring the products from one 
department to another. In this connection it is necessary 
to consider the requirements of the Bureau of Animal In- 
dustry, that no edible products shall be conveyed through or 
stored in rooms which contain any of the inedible products. 



14 PACKING PLANTS 

Prom an operating standpoint the killing floor in a 
packing plant will be considered as the starting point. Prac- 
tical experience has located the killing department on the 
top floor of the slaughter house. In modern plants this 
will be on the fourth floor, as live stock can easily be driven 
to this height without detriment to their condition. 

With such an arrangement we have the live stock con- 
veyed by its own effort to a point from which the dressed 
carcasses and all the byproducts can be transferred by 
gravity, or by a minimum of labor, to their proper place 
of storage or manufacture. 

The fresh meat is taken to the chilling rooms which 
are frequently located on the same level as the killing floor, 
but in an adjoining building. The offal and other byprod- 
ucts are dropped by gravity to other floor-levels, and there 
separated and cleaned and made ready for further distri- 
bution to other departments or places of storage. 

Directly below the killing floor is the offal department, 
and all products going from here to the rendering tanks, are 
trucked over to the filling floor in the tank house, without 
the necessity of using elevators for raising or lowering 
the offal, as is often the case in less modern plants. 

The building in which the rendering tanks are placed 
is known as the tank house, and is generally located as a 
separate building, convenient to the slaughter house. This 
is done, principally, to provide sufficient light and ventila- 
tion on as many sides of the two buildings as possible. 

The fertilizer building is often placed adjacent to the 
tank house, although it should be kept as far away from all 
edible food departments as can be conveniently arranged 
for, and the window openings should be left out on all 
walls which face directly upon any other building in which 
edible products are stored. The oleo department and bone 
cooking, in beef killing plants, should be placed close to 
the slaughter house. In smaller plants, these departments 
are placed on the lower floors of this building. Otherwise 
they are located in the bone and oil house adjoining the 
slaughter house. 



PACKING PLANTS 15 

The coolers for hanging dressed carcasses, or for stor- 
age of meats should be m buildmgs which are used for cold 
storage purposes only. Even the smallest plants should 
provide for this and not locate the chill rooms below the 
killing floor, as is often done in poorly arranged plants. 

The cooler buildings can be conveniently located across 
the railroad tracks from the slaughter house, and the 
dressed cattle and hogs conveyed over a bridge to the hang- 
ing rooms which are built on the same level as the killing 
floor; when the coolers are placed below the level of the 
killing floor, an inclined conveyor or elevator is used to take 
the carcasses down. 

The meat curing rooms, freezers and shipping coolers 
are placed on the lower floors, as required. 

The manufacturing building, where finished products 
such as lard, sausage and smoked meats are handled, should 
be convenient to the cooler building, tank house, and smoke 
houses, so that all products used in the manufacturing can 
be transferred economically from one building to another. 

The boiler and engine room should be in separate 
buildings and located adjacent to the buildings where steam 
and refrigeration is most needed. Live and exhaust steam 
for cooking and heating purposes is required on prac- 
tically every floor in the tank house, lard refinery and bone 
and oil house. 
Natural Light 

In order to give adequate light and ventilation to all 
buildings- and departments, it will be necessary, in many 
instances, to separate the buildings, and make use of the 
space betw6en them for light and ventilating courts. 

This space can be utilized, on the first floor, as drive- 
ways, or trucking passages between buildings, and for 
railroad tracks. 

One of the principal requirements of the Bureau of 
Animal Industry is that natural light and fresh air be ad- 
mitted to all rooms where food products are prepared or 
stored. This does not include coolers, curing cellars or 
oleo seeding rooms. It would be advisable, however, to 



16 PACKING PLANTS 

arrange for outside ventilation in these rooms by a limited 
amomit of window openings, so that the rooms could be 
aired and ventilated, if desired. 

The best arrangement of buildings in which the manu- 
facturing and slaughtering is done, w^ould be to shape the 
buildings so that daylight could penetrate the entire depth 
of all rooms. This would limit the width of the building 
to 80 feet and require a maximum amount of window open- 
ings in both side-walls. 

Windows should not be placed over four feet from the 
floor line and should extend up to within a few inches of the 
ceiling in order to throw the light into the room as far 
as possible. 

The value of sunlight as a disinfectant is so important 
in a packing house that careful attention should be given 
to the number and arrangement of windows. When the 
requirements necessitate the use of wire-glass windows 
for fire protection, it is advisable to use the clear wire-glass 
instead of the ordinary rough glass, as the latter obscures 
the light and keeps the direct sunlight from entering. 

Skylights should be placed in the roofs of buildings 
where much sunlight is desirable on the top floor. This 
refers particularly to the slaughter house and all manufac- 
turing buildings. The skylights should run North and South 
in order to give the best results and be provided with suf- 
ficient ventilation to take off all foul air. 
Ventilation 

A thorough ventilation of all rooms in a packing house 
is necessary in order to maintain sanitary working condi- 
tions for the employees and prevent putrefaction. 

By proper distribution of windows and doors in a well 
designed plant it will be possible to secure satisfactory nat- 
ural ventilation in most departments, during the time of 
the year when the windows can be kept open. But when 
the outer air becomes cold, as in winter, the windows are 
closed more or less, and the rooms are poorly ventilated. 

This condition will prove most objectionable in those 
departments where hot water and animal heat create an 



PACKING PLANTS 17 

atmosphere filled with vapors, often to such an extent that 
one cannot see half way across the room. Mechanical 
ventilation must be provided and heating pipes installed to 
overcome this objectionable condition during the cold 
months when windows and ventilators cannot be kept open. 

The best result in ventilation is obtained by rotary 
fans and a system of air ducts, which will exhaust the foul 
air from the room and supply pure air at the opposite side 
from the place where the air is removed. 

The current of incoming air should not be of a higher 
velocity than three feet a second, unless the ducts are 
placed so high above the floor that the air will not strike 
directly on the workmen. 

When mechanical ventilation is employed, the intake 
for fresh air should be placed so as not to be near the fer- 
tilizer building or catch basins. 

The most economical fan to operate would be a rotary 
fan of large size, operated at low pressure, and driven either 
by a separate motor or from a line-shaft operating other 
machinery. 

Natural ventilation can be obtained with good results 
in the lower stories by an intelligent arrangement of flues, 
built into the brick walls. The inlet to such flues should be 
close to the ceiling and the opening made of the same area 
as that of the flue. 

The author believes that if such flues were installed 
in sufficient numbers in tank houses, sausage rooms and 
similar manufacturing places, they would do a great deal 
to overcojiie the badly ventilated condition which so often 
exists in even the most modern plants. 
Communication Between Buildings j 

Communication between departments located in dif- 
ferent buildings must be so arranged that it will not be 
necessary to convey any of the nonedible products of the 
carcasses through rooms used for edible products. For 
this reason, separate communication should be provided 
between the offal floor and the tank house for the trucking 
of edible and inedible products. 



18 PACKING PLANTS 

The same ruling applies to elevators and it is, there- 
fore, required that where elevators are used for the handling 
of hides, fertilizer and other inedible products, they are to 
be used for such purposes only, and separate elevators must 
be installed to handle the edible products. 

Where buildings adjoin one another and are separated 
by a fire wall, the communication should be through a 
fireproof vestibule. This will prevent a fire in one building 
from spreading to the next building and tends to reduce 
the insurance rate. 

Underground communication between cellars should be 
provided for, so that goods can be transferred without the 
use of elevators. Tunnels can be constructed under the 
railroad tracks to serve as passageways and for running 
pipes and conduits from one building to another. This 
method of installing the numerous w^ater, steam and refrig- 
erating pipes will be found very convenient, and far supe- 
rior to the usual method of running the pipes in covered 
trenches, or on overhead supports. 

The expense of constructing the tunnel will be cov- 
ered by the reduced cost of installing the piping and the 
ease with which repairs can be made afterwards. 

Cokimn Spacing 

The most practical and economical spacing of columns 
in any manufacturing or storage building is one which 
permits the utilization of space between the columns with 
the least loss of room. For this reason, a spacing of 16 
feet from center to center of columns has been universally 
adopted in packing house construction. 

In a cooler building, divided into 16 foot sections, the 
hanging rooms for hogs will have six rails per section and 
the distance between the rails is sufficient to allow the air 
to circulate freely between each row of hogs. 

In a beef cooler there are in e0,ch section, six rails, four 
of which are hanging rails, the other two being used for 
transferring quartered beef to other parts of the cooler. 
This spacing allows room for the buyer to pass between 
each row of beef carcasses when making his selection. 



PACKING PLANTS 19 

In curing rooms we find that the 16-foot sections will 
accommodate three rows of curing vats of standard size 
(1,500 lbs.) and leave room between the single and the 
double row of vats for a working alley. When this is re- 
peated in the next section, all vats will stand in triple 
rows with a working alley between. 

On the killing floor, two beef beds are placed in each 
16-foot section. 

In the tank house, four 6-foot rendering tanks are 
supported in one section. 

From a construction standpoint the same spacing of 
columns is equally satisfactory where timbers are used for 
the support of floors and roof. Mill constructed buildings 
can be designed economically with timbers of such size 
as are easily obtainable in most lumber yards and mills. 

With reinforced concrete construction, the floor slab 
can be supported on girders of moderate size without the 
use of intermediate floor beams. This is of particular 
advantage when refrigerating pipes are placed overhead. 
Planning for Future Expansion 

When a plant is designed for its present requirements 
only, and no provisions are made for future expansion, the 
ov/ner may find later on, that it will be impossible to enlarge 
his output without making costly changes in the part of the 
plant already built. 

It is always possible to inc;rease the killing capacity 
of a new plant without enlarging the killing floor, whereas 
the coolers and other departments may be inadequate to 
take care of the increase in killing. This condition applies 
to all plants and the designer should arrange the build- 
ings so that there is room for growth, tor addition, on» at 
least one side of each building. 

Where the ground area is limited, or the value of the 
land is high, the capacity of the plant may be enlarged to 
better advantage by adding more stories to the buildings. 
In such case the foundations and lower stories must be 
built of sufficient strength to support the additional weights 
that may be placed upon them. 



20 PACKING PLANTS 

When it has been determined how the enlargement of 
the plant can best be taken care of in the future, all build- 
ing walls, which later on may become party walls between 
two buildings, should be constructed so as to carry the addi- 
tional loads from the future building. The recommenda- 
tions of the fire underwriters regarding party walls must 
also be considered. 

In buildings of small area, such as tank houses and 
boiler and engine rooms, it is often advisable to erect a 
temporary wall on the side on which the future addition 
may be built, and remove this wall later on, in order to 
avoid a division of the building. These temporary walls 
should always be built with columns and beams to support 
the floors and roof and the columns and beams must be 
made strong enough to carry both the old and new con- 
struction. Where the roof is carried on trusses over boiler 
and engine rooms, which rest on the permanent side walls, 
these will support the loads from the roof and also in this 
case the temporary end wall need only be strong enough to 
support its own weight. 



CHAPTER II 

PLANS AND DESCRIPTION OF A MODERN 
PACKING PLANT 

Capacity and Construction 

The illustrations, Figures 1 to 8, inclusive, show the 
arrangement of an establishment doing a general packing 
house business, under Government inspection. 

Cattle, sheep and hogs are slaughtered and the byprod- 
ucts handled and cured to a finished commercial product. 
The plant is designed for a daily killing capacity of 200 cat- 
tle, 400 sheep and 1,500 hogs. 

All buildings are of fireproof construction with brick 
walls and reinforced concrete fioors and roof. Firewalls 
have been built wherever it was necessary to separate one 
part of the plant from another and the principal require- 
ments of the fire insurance companies have been complied 
with. 

By referring to the first-floor plan. Figure 1, the gen- 
eral arrangement of the plant can best be studied. The 
buildings have been grouped with the intention of leaving 
room for future expansion on at least one side of each 
building, and, at the same time, give light and ventilation 
to all departments where manufacturing or slaughtering is 
done. 

Railroad tracks have been placed convenient to all 
shipping points in the plant, and separate railroad sid- 
ings are provided for coal and live stock. The team loading 
is handled in a wagon court placed in front of the cooler 
building, adjacent to the street. 

The fertilizer building and live stock pens are placed 



2.2 A MODERN PACKING PLANT 

as far away from the street as the arrangement would per- 
mit, and they are served by a separate railroad siding at the 
rear of the property. 

The general offices and the men's dressing room and 
toilet station are in separate buildings which are not shown 
on the ground plan. 
Slaughter House 

This occupies a central location with light and ventila- 
tion on three sides. The north end adjoins the boiler and 
engine room, and as these buildings are only one story high, 
the slaughter house will also get light from this side above 
the second story. 

All killing is done on the fourth floor and the live stock 
is driven up from the stock yards over an inclined runway 
placed on the east side of the building. Storage and rest- 
ing pens have been provided at three different levels in 
order that an ample supply of live stock may be kept at hand 
during the killing hours. 

The slaughter house floor is divided by a brick parti- 
tion into two rooms, one for the slaughtering of cattle and 
the other for hogs. Four beef killing beds, with a capacity 
of 200 cattle per day, have been provided, and also space 
for small-stock killing, where 400 sheep and calves can be 
handled daily. 

The hog killing arrangement provides for a capacity of 
1,500 hogs per day. The equipment includes a double hog 
wheel, two sticking rails, hog scalding tub with conveyor, 
one large scraper and moving hog bench. After the hogs 
have been gambrelled and hung on the dressing rails, they 
are kept moving on the rail by a variable speed conveyor 
until dressed and ready for the chill-rooms. Ample space 
is provided for the Government inspection of retained hogs. 
This retaining room is well lighted and is fitted up with 
rails for the storage and final inspection of all retained car- 
casses. 

All offal and byproducts from the killing floor are 
passed by gravity chutes to the floor below and there sepa- 
rated and cleaned for further distribution and manufac- 



A MODERN PACKING PLANT 23 

ture in other departments. Tongues, hearts, brains, etc., 
are trimmed and sent to the coolers. Heads and feet are 
cleaned and trimmed before being taken to the tank house 
or bone cooking vats. Tripe is washed and cooked or sent 
to the curing coolers and all casings are cleaned and packed 
away in salt until shipped. 

On the third floor is also located a part of the oleo 
oil department, which is separated by a partition from the 
rest of the occupancy on this floor. The oleo equipment 
includes fat cutter, two chilling vats, hasher and two melt- 
ing kettles. 

The second floor is occupied entirely by the oleo depart- 
ment, excepting a small room for the drying of bones. The 
oleo oil is drawn from the kettles to the clarifiers and then 
placed in seeding trucks for storage. Two oleo oil presses 
are provided, as well as a press table and stearine bin. 

The first floor is partly insulated and used for the stor- 
age of oleo oil, which is kept in the cooler at a temperature 
of 50° Fahr. until shipped. The oil is collected from the 
presses into an elevated receiving tank and then drawn into 
tierces and placed in the cooler. 

The remaining room on this floor is used for storing 
tallow and stearine. 

The cellar under the killing building is used for curing 
of hides and sheep pelts. Salt storage is provided under the 
platform adjoining the railroad tracks where the salt can 
be conveniently unloaded from the car. 
Cooler Building 

The dressed carcasses of cattle, sheep and hogs are 
conveyed from the slaughter house over a covered bridge 
to the cooler building, which is located a^cross the railroad 
tracks, with frontage on the street. This building is divided 
by a brick flre-wall into two sections, one for pork products 
and the other for cattie and sheep. 

Each section is five stories high with a cellar. There 
are three elevators and stairways placed in fireproof vesti- 
bules and all communications between the buildings are 
through openings protected by double fire-doors. 



24 A MODERN PACKING PLANT 

Pork Building 

The top floor of this building is used as a pipe loft 
for the hog hanging coolers on the fourth floor. These 
coolers are on the same level as the killing floor and have 
a hanging capacity of 3,000 hogs, figuring one hog for every 
14 inches of rail space. The coolers are divided by insulated 
partitions into 16 foot sections, with six hanging rails in 
each section. One cooler is reserved for leaf lard. 

The three lower stories and cellar of the pork building 
are used for the curing of pork products and are refrig- 
erated by direct expansion piping, placed on the ceiling. 

Beef Building 

This building is arranged as follows: On the fourth 
floor (Fig. 5) there are two beef coolers, with pipe-lofts 
above, and a cutting room for hogs. The warm beef 
chill-rooms have hanging rails for 240 cattle, figuring one 
side of beef for every 16 inches of rail space. The storage 
cooler has a capacity of 800 sheep and 400 cattle, allowing 
14 inches for each side of beef. The cutting room for hogs 
has a high ceiling and is well lighted by windows and sky- 
lights. 

The third fioor is divided into five rooms as shown in 
Figure 4. The meat-sorting and trimming room is placed 
directly under the cutting room on the floor above. The 
adjoining room is used as an offal cooler in which livers, 
tripe, brains, etc., are hung or spread on racks until shipped 
out or sent to the adjoining sharp freezer room. The sau- 
sage-meat cooler is used for the storage of trimmings and 
other products which are to be made into sausage. The 
sausage meat is prepared in the room adjoining the cooler. 
This room is kept at a temperature of 45° to 50° Fahn and 
contains the sausage machinery. 

The second floor (Fig. 3) is used for freezer storage 
and pipe lofts for the beef coolers below. 

On the first floor (Fig. 1), is located the wholesale mar- 
ket and the shipping cooler. The hanging capacity is 400 
cattle, with additional storage space for miscellaneous beef 



A MODERN PACKING PLANT 25 

cuts, pork loins, etc. Adjoining the market cooler are two 
smaller rooms for hanging and packing sausage and boiled 
hams. One room is used for smoked goods and is kept at 
a temperature of 45° to 50° Fahr. The other room is for 
boiled hams, liver-sausage, etc., which should be kept at a 
temperature of 32° to 34° Fahr. 

The two South sections of the first floor are not in- 
sulated and are used as shipping room and office, in con- 
nection with the market. All orders for goods which are 
to be shipped out by wagons are made up in this room, 
ready for delivery. 

The entire cellar (Fig. 2) is insulated and used for the 
curing of beef and pork products. Salt storage is provided 
under the shipping platform which is adjacent to the rail- 
road tracks. 
Manufacturing Building 

Adjoining the coolers to the East, is the manufacturing 
building, which is three stories high, with a cellar under 
the entire building. The sausage factory is located on the 
top floor so as to be convenient to the sausage coolers in 
the adjoining building, where the meat is prepared ready 
for stuffing. This is done in the manufacturing building, 
where two compressed air stuffers have been provided. 

The link sausage is hung on cages which are sus- 
pended from overhead rails, placed along each stuffing table 
and continued to the smoke houses and cook rooms, located 
on the same floor. The sausage is taken down on the ele- 
vator and hung in the coolers on the flrst floor and there 
packed. ' 

That part of the top floor which is not required for 
the sausage factory, is used for the lai>d reflnery. Prime 
steam lard from the tank house is stored in the large 
receivers which are placed along the north wall. The lard 
is pumped from here to the refining kettles and mixed with 
Fuller's earth, and after passing through the filter presses, 
it gravitates to the refined lard receivers. From these 
receivers it is pumped back to the agitator tank and then 
cooled over the lard-rolls on the floor below. 



26 A MODERN PACKING PLANT 

The kettle-rendered lard is hashed and melted on the 
top floor. The equipment includes one Enterprise hasher, 
two melting kettles and two neutral oil kettles, with strain- 
ers and receiving tanks on the floor below. 

The second floor is used entirely by the lard reflnery. 
The finished lard is here cooled, drawn off into tubs and tins 
and sent to the cooler for storage until shipped. 

On the first floor is located the hanging and packing 
room for smoked hams and bacon. The partition around 
this room is made with open slats and screened in order to 
give free ventilation through the room. The smoked meat 
is hung on trolleys and air-dried before being wrapped and 
boxed. This floor is also used as a storage and shipping 
room for all manufactured goods which are to be shipped 
by railroad or wagon. 

The cellar is used for the soaking and washing of 
sweet-pickled meats. Hams and bacon are soaked in con- 
crete vats and are washed and hung on trolleys before 
being taken to the smoke houses. The remaining cellar- 
room is set aside for the storage and washing of empty 
tierces, cooperage, etc. 

Smoke House 

Adjoining the manufacturing building are the smoke 
houses for ham and bacon. All communications between 
the two buildings are through a vestibule with door-open- 
ings protected by double flre-doors. 

The firing pits and wood storage are in the cellar and 
the smoke houses above are three stories high. Each house 
has a total smoking capacity of 5,400 lbs. The sausage 
smokers are located on the third floor with firing pits on 
the floor below. 

Tank House 

To the south of the slaughter house and separated 
from this by an open court is the tank house, which is a 
three-story and basement building, divided into two sec- 
tions. The division wall starts at the flrst floor level and 
is continued up to the roof, and the cellar is left undi- 



A MODERN PACKING PLANT 27 

Yided. This arrangement is required by the Bureau of 
Animal Industry, in order to separate the tanks in which 
the edible products are rendered from the tanks contain- 
ing inedible products. The rendering tanks are filled on 
the third floor, which is on the same level as the offal floor 
in the slaughter house, and all offal and fat is trucked across 
on steel bridges, connecting the two buildings. 

The second floor of the tank house is omitted, except 
for a narrow gallery around the tanks for drawing off lard 
and grease. This arrangement provides good light and 
ventilation to the cooking room and the steam and odors 
are readily carried off through the windows and ventilating 
flues. Below the rendering tanks are placed the skimming 
boxes, one box for each two tanks, into which the residue 
is dumped after the lard is drawn off. The inedible depart- 
ment contains also a large blood-receiver with cooking 
tank on the first floor. 

The cellar is used for the pressing and drying of fer- 
tilizer. Two hydraulic presses are installed and the pressed 
tankage is dried in the fertilizer building. 

This is a one-story building with cellar. On the first 
floor is installed a complete plant for the evaporation of 
the tank water, which is stored in concrete vats, placed out- 
side of the building and equipped with steam coils for heat- 
ing the water. 

The pressed tankage whicji contains about flfty per 
cent moisture is elevated from the cellar to the first fioor 
by an inclined conveyor and is then thrown into a screw 
conveyor and mixed with the stick from the evaporator. 
This mixture is dumped into the tankage drier in the cellar 
where the moisture is extracted. The dried tankage is then 
spread over the cellar floor to cool and afterwards screened 
and stored on the flrst floor, ready for shipment. The 
product is sold to manufacturers of hog food. 

The pressed blood is dried in the small rotary drier in 
the cellar and stored on the floor above. The fertilizer 
equipment also includes a disintegrator for grinding tank- 
age as well as bones and tailings from the screens. 



28 A MODERN PACKING PLANT 

Catch Basin 

This is located to the east of the slaughter house and 
extends down below the cellar floor, so that all floor drains 
will be discharged into the basin. The skimmings are col- 
lected in a steel tank and blown, under steam pressure, up 
to the grease rendering tanks. 
Boiler and Engine Rooms 

These are located adjoining the slaughter house and 
are constructed so that the north wall can be removed for 
future extension. The boilers are located at the level of the 
cellar floor and the coal is dumped direct from the cars into 
a storage bin below the track. Coal elevators and hoppers 
are installed for gravity feed to the chain grates in front 
of the boilers. 

The cellar below the engine room is excavated and 
the machinery foundations are built up from the cellar 
floor. The space between the foundations is used for pumps 
and for the exhaust pipes from the refrigerating machines 
and generators. The floor of the engine room is built 
around the machinery on a level with the outside grade. 

The ammonia condensers are placed on the roof and 
are enclosed with louvres on three sides in order to permit 
the free circulation of air through the condenser house. 

A water reservoir is built adjoining the engine room, 
where the overflow water from the condensers is stored for 
fire purposes, or pumped from here to the plant and used 
for the washing up of floors. 

The stock yard is built with covered pens and is paved 
with brick. An inclined runway, over which the live stock 
is driven to the killing floor, is built on the east side of the 
slaughter house. 



J T H ■._ L T 




FTG. 1— FIRST STORY FLOOR PLAN— COMPLETE PACKING PLANT. (SEE CHAPTER 11). 



I^"*""^F— 1^— "^—^ii— "»— 1 



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MlfiarACTUSJNO tlDO 

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tei- 



niriirLL'j!i!u'DiNo'PFjr'"iTO'Ji;c; 



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l-i-44-H 












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LfW^l lD.";n61iQO 



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♦ t * 



FIG. 2— CELI.AR FLOOR PLAN — COMPLETE PACKING PLANT. 
(SEE CHAPTER II). 



RUiLC JiiCasO. 






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il 






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FIG. <— THIRD STORY FLOOR PLAN— COMPLETE PACKING PLANT. 
(SEE CHAPTER II). 




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FIG. 3— SECOND STORY FLOOR PLAN— COMPLETE PACKING PLANT. 
(SEE CHAPTER II). 




FIG. 5— FOURTH STORY FLOOR PLAN— COMPLETE PACKING PLANT, 
(SEE CHAPTER II). 




:)UUOt1TLlI HOUOL 



POII^ bUlLDmO 



FIG. 7 — SECTION AA — COMPLETE PACKING PLANT. (SEE CHAPTER II). 



, m, ' ' 'r \ \ , ^ ^ , i^ W7 '^~^ , I I , 
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FLUTILIZLH mLDlbLt: 'LDI&LL' J)fAORL 

bUlLDlNO TANf^HOUOL TANK HOUX nOU:)L,:) 

PIG. S— SECTION BB— COMPLETE PACKING PLANT. (SEE CHAPTER II). 



M/\MurAcruiiiNCi 

bUILDINO 



4^ 4^ 

bLLF bUILDlNO 



CHAPTER III 

PLANS AND DESCRIPTION OF A BEEF AND 
SHEEP KILLING PLANT 

Capacity and Construction 

In Figures 9 to 15, inclusive, are shown the plans for 
a beef-killing plant with a capacity of 600 cattle and 500 
sheep per day. 

The plant is designed for shipments of beef in carload 
lots and is equipped for handling all by-products. A com- 
pound lard refinery and a small canning factory have also 
been arranged for. 

The construction is fireproof, with brick walls and con- 
crete floors. The recommendations of the National Board 
of Fire-Underwriters have been complied with as far as was 
considered advisable, without unduly increasing the cost 
or handicaping the economical operation of the plant. 

The buildings have been arranged so that additions 
can be made to all of the buildings without demolishing 
any of the present work. 

The general arrangement of the plant is best illus- 
trated by the first story floor plan, Figure 9. 

It will be seen that three railroad tracks have been pro- 
vided in the space between the cooler and killing building. 
These tracks are used for the icing of refrigerator cars and 
shipments of beef. An ice plant is installed for the manu- 
facture of ice, and ice-crusher, hopper and other necessary 
equipment for car icing installed. The car icing is done 
with iron buckets, running on a rail, placed over the center 
of the cars, see Figure 15. The men doing the icing, walk 
on the top of the cars, pushing the buckets in front of them. 
The empty buckets run on the return track back to the 



30 BEEF AND SHEEP KILLING PLANT 

crusher for refilling. Salt is handled in the same manner. 

The space, where the refrigerator cars are loaded and 
iced, is covered for protection against the weather. The 
roof is placed at a height which will permit the switching 
crew to stand on top of the cars. This is required by the 
State laws as well as by the railroads, and the minimum 
clearance between the top of the rail and all overhead ob- 
structions must be 22' 6". 

On the west side of the slaughter house is located the 
boiler and engine rooms, tank house, and fertilizer build- 
ing. These buildings are served by a separate railroad 
track which is also used for the loading of hides from the 
cellar under the slaughter house. 

Plans and sections show the occupancy of all floors in 
each building, so that only a brief description of the plant 
will be set forth. 

Fourth Floor 

The killing of both cattle and sheep is done on this 
floor (Fig. 13). The arrangement provides for eight cattle 
beds with a capacity of 600 cattle per day, and the sheep 
killing ring is of sufficient size to handle 500 sheep per day. 

Storage pens for live stock have been placed outside 
of the building on the same level as the killing floor, so 
that a supply of both cattle and sheep is always on hand 
ready for killing. 

Third Floor 

The dressed carcasses are taken to the coolers on the 
third floor (Fig. 12) by an inclined conveyor on the bridge 
over the railroad tracks. The chill-rooms are on this floor 
and have a hanging capacity of 500 cattle and 1500 sheep. 

The offal cooler and adjoining freezer storage are used 
for storing livers, tongues, hearts, brains, etc., either fresh 
or frozen. All offal from the killing floor is dropped to 
the third floor, where it is separated and cleaned. The 
edible offal goes to the cooler, the fat to the oleo room or 
to the tank house and the bones are handled and cooked 
in an adjoining room. 

All buildings are connected by bridges at the third 



BEEF AND SHEEP KILLING PLANT 31 

floor level so that products can be trucked or conveyed by 
overhead trolleys from one department to another. A can- 
ning factory is shown in the oleo building. The equipment 
includes everything necessary to make canned goods on a 
small scale. The third floor also includes the laundry for 
the plant and the office and toilet room for the Government 
inspectors. 
Second Floor 

The space in the cooler building is used for pipe lofts 
and freezer storage. In the slaughter house there is stor- 
age room for casings and dried bones (Fig. 11). 

The entire floor in the oleo building is set aside for 
oleo seeding and pressing. Adjoining this, in a separate 
building, are the dressing and toilet rooms for the em- 
ployees. All cooking in the tank houses is done on this 
floor and the tallow and grease drawn off to the receivers. 
First Floor 

The storage and shipping coolers for beef (Fig. 9) 
have a hanging capacity of 600 cattle. These are brought 
down from the chill room on the third floor by an inclined 
conveyor and by the beef-drop adjoining the elevator. 

The sales cooler for local trade has a hanging capacity 
of 250 cattle and storage space for beef-cuts and other 
products. 

The shipping-room is conveniently located near the 
car-loading platform and the wagon court and has a small 
office space for the shipping clerks. 

The main office is placed at the front of the plant, in 
a separate' building which is two stories high with cellar. 
The balance of the room on the first floor in all buildings 
is principally used for storage and shipping of goods which 
are manufactured on the floors above. 

Cellar 

The cellar space in the cooler building (Fig. 10) is 
used for the storing of barrel beef, tripe or other tierced 
goods. There is a tunnel under the railroad tracks which 
connects the salt storage rooms underneath the loading 



32 BEEF AND SHEEP KILLING PLANT 

platforms. Hides and sheep pelts are stored in the cellars 
of the slaughter house and the oleo building. The fer- 
tilizer is pressed and dried in the tank house cellar and 
elevated to the first floor of the fertilizer building. 

The boiler and engine rooms are excavated to the same 
depth as the rest of the plant. Coal storage is provided in 
front of the boilers and the coal is emptied directly into 
the bins from the cars on the railroad tracks above. 

The foundations for the refrigerating machines and 
generators M^ere built up from the cellar floor-level and 
the space between the foundations v^as used for the run- 
ning of exhaust pipes. A wood floor was placed around 
the tops of the foundation at the first story floor-level. 

The stock yard was built at the south end of the prop- 
erty between the railroad tracks on each side of the plant. 
The pens are laid out so that live stock can be unloaded 
from the cars on two sides of the yard. 

Compound Lard Manufacturing Plant 

The equipment of the packing plant previously de- 
scribed includes the tanks and machinery necessary for 
the refining of cotton seed oil and the manufacturing of 
compound lard. 

Most of this equipment is placed in the edible depart- 
ment of the tank house, where the oil is refined and the 
lard is manufactured. The finished product is pumped over 
to the first floor of the slaughter house and there cooled 
and packed. 

Compound lard is cotton seed oil compounded with 
oleo, stearine or tallow, and sometimes both. 

The crude cotton seed oil is delivered in tank cars and 
weighed on the track scale in front of the tank house. 
The oil is pumped from the car to the crude oil refining 
kettles on the third floor, where it is mixed with caustic 
soda, heated and stirred by a revolving agitator. The clear 
oil is siphoned off and afterwards pumped through a filter- 
press to remove any foreign substance. The oil is then 
known as "Yellow Oil," which is a refined bleachable cot- 




FIG. 9— FIRST STORY FLOOR PLAN— BEEF KILLING PLANT. (SEK CHAPTER III), 






■— ^ — — T 



--4- 



bllLlilL ItLF , 






: m 



'?4^ 



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_I? 















Ji 



FIG. 10 — CELLAR FLOOR PLAN — BEEF KILLING PLANT. 
(SEE CHAPTER III). 




FIG. 12 — THIRD STORY FLOOR PLAN— BEEF KILLING PLANT. 
(SEE CHAPTER III). 




FIG. 11— SECOND STORY FLOOR PLAN— BEEP KILLING PLANT. 
(SEE CHAPTER III). 




B^IG 13-FOURTH STORY FLOOR PLAN-BBKF KILLING 1-L.^NT. 
(SEE CHAPTER IJD. 



PIG. l4_SECTION AA— BEEF KILLING PLANT. (SEE CHAPTER III). 




FIG. 



15-SECTION BB-BEBF 



jCILLlI^Q PLANT. (SEE CHAPTER III). 



BEEF AND SHEEP KILLING PLANT 33 

ton seed oil. This is stored in the large storage tanks in 
the yard south of the tank house. The sediment and im- 
purities left in the crude oil kettles is known as "Foots" 
and is drawn off into the tanks directly below the refining 
kettles, where it is boiled and further treated with caustic 
soda before it is packed and sold as soap stock. 

The scale tank shown over the crude oil refining 
kettles is used for weighing the lye before it is mixed with 
the oil. 

Before the oil is manufactured into lard, it must be 
treated to remove all odors. This is done in the deodorizing 
tanks with live steam at a pressure of 135 pounds. Prom 
here it is taken to the small refining kettles and com- 
pounded with stearine and about 3 per cent of Fuller's 
Earth. This is pumped through a filter-press and from 
there gravitates back to the receiving tanks. The finished 
product is now ready to be cooled over the lard roll and 
from there filled into packages. 



CHAPTER IV 



PLANS AND DESCRIPTION OF 
HOG PACKING PLANT 

Capacity and Construction 

In Figures 16 to 23, inclusive, are illustrations of a 
hog killing plant with a daily capacity of 1200 to 1500 
hogs. The arrangement includes the buildings and equip- 
ment necessary to cure and store the output, manufacture 
lard and sausage, smoked meats, and for the conversion 
of all inedible products into the finished commercial fer- 
tilizer. 

The plant is of reinforced concrete construction and 
arranged for future expansion in all departments. The 
buildings are planned to conform to the recommendations 
of the insurance underwriters and are divided by firewalls 
into sections, so as to separate the fire-hazard of one 
occupancy from that of another. 

The manufacturing and killing are done in buildings 
separate from those where the products are cured and 
stored, in order to obtain the lowest basic rates on each 
individual section of the plant, based upon the principal 
occupancy. All communications between sections are 
through standard vestibules with double fire-doors. All 
openings in exposed walls are protected by fire-doors or 
metal windows with wire glass. The power plant is in 
separate buildings and a large water reservoir is provided 
for fire purposes. 

The buildings are located on both sides of the railroad 
sidings and are connected on the upper floors by bridges. 
On the north side of the tracks (see first story floor plan, 
Fig. 16) are placed the slaughter house, tank house, fer- 



HOG PACKING PLANT 35 

tilizer building, and the boiler and engine rooms. On the 
other side are the hog coolers, pork warehouses, manufac- 
turing building and smoke houses. 

The illustrations are sufficiently detailed to show the 
occupancy of each building and, therefore, only a short 
description of the plant will be given. 
Slaughter House 

This is four stories high, with cellar. The killing is 
done on the top floor, which has a very high ceiling. The 
room has ventilation and light on four sides as well as in 
the roof. 

The hog pens are at the north end and are built with 
three decks for the storage of hogs as they are brought 
over from the yards. 

The equipment on the killing floor consists of a double 
hog wheel and two sticking rails; concrete scalding tub, 
scraper, moving bench, and hog dressing conveyor; all 
arranged as shown in Figure 20. 

Ample room, with inspection and storage rails, has 
been provided for the government inspectors. 

The chain conveyor delivers the hogs into the open air 
hanging room which will be described later. 

The third floor is used for offal cleaning, handling of 
casings, etc. It is connected with the tank house and with 
the cold storage and manufacturing buildings by bridges, 
as shown in Figure 19. 

The second floor is used as storage room for casings. 
The balance of the floor space is set aside for the use of 
the employees; with dining room, dressing room and toilet 
room in separate compartments. 

The stair on the outside of the building leads to the 
shipping platform at the first floor level and it also connects 
with the third floor bridge, so as to give ready access to 
the toilet room from all parts of the plant. 

The flrst floor is used for storage of grease in tierces 
and as a general shipping room. The west section is fitted 
up with offices and toilet rooms for the plant superintend- 
ent, time-keeper and Government inspectors. 



36 HOG PACKING PLANT 

The cellar is used as storage for box chucks, cooper- 
age, etc., and Is connected with the rest of the plant by a 
tunnel under the railroad tracks, so that boxes and tierces 
can be taken to any elevator in the plant. 
Tank House 

This is three stories high, with cellar, and is separated 
from the slaughter house by a ventilating court, 16 feet 
wide. 

The tanks are filled on the third floor and the products 
are trucked over from the offal department and from the 
trimming room. 

Lard and grease are drawn off from galleries above 
the first floor so that the second floor may be omitted, in 
order to thoroughly light and ventilate the cooking room. 
The latter is divided by a brick partition into edible and 
inedible compartments as required by the Government. 

The tankage and blood are pressed in the cellar and 
taken to the driers in the fertilizer building. 

The east wall of the tank house is supported on con- 
crete columns and beams, so that the temporary brick 
panels can be removed whenever the building needs 
enlarging. 
Fertilizer Building 

This is a one-story building with cellar and has a pent 
house on the roof, over the fertilizer screens. 

The fertilizer is dried in the basement by two rotary 
driers and spread over the floor to cool. It is then elevated 
to the screens and stored on the first floor. The tailings 
go back to the bone mill for grinding and again pass over 
the screens. 

An evaporating plant for tank water is installed on 
the first fioor and the water is stored in concrete vats at 
the east end of the building, before it is pumped to the 
evaporating pans. 

The walls of the fertilizer building support the columns 
for the three decks of hog pens above as shown in 
Figure 22. 

The stock yards are located along the railroad tracks 



HOG PACKING PLANT 11 

and the hogs are driven to the elevated pens, over an 
incKned runway on the west side of the plant. 

Catch Basin 

This is placed between the evaporator room and the 
inedible department of the tank house. It is 60 feet long 
with double compartments, four feet wide, and with a skim- 
ming platform in the center. This size basin will handle 
300,000 gallons of water per 24 hours. 

The skimmings are piped to the blow tank and raised 
by steam pressure to the rendering tank. 
Boiler and Engine Room 

The power and refrigerating plants are located in 
separate buildings, which are excavated to the cellar floor 
level. Coal is dumped from cars placed on a separate track 
in front of the boilers, which are fired in the basement. 

The machinery foundations are built up from the cellar 
floor level and the space between the engine beds is used 
for running the exhaust steam piping. A 6-foot tunnel 
under the railroad tracks has been provided for all service 
pipes and electric conduits required in the south section of 
the plant. 

The ammonia condensers are located on the roof over 
the engine room and are enclosed by louvres on all four 
sides. The overflow water from the condenser pan is stored 
in a large reservoir and used for cleaning up around the 
plant. 
Open Air Hanging Floor 

The space over the railroad tracks between the killing 
floor and the cooler is used for air-drying of hogs before 
they are taken into the coolers. The hanging capacity of 
this floor is 1200 hogs or one day's killing output. 

The room is constructed with continuous window 
openings in each end wall and has a high ceiling and venti- 
lator in the roof, as shown in Figure 22. The draft created 
by the open windows and ventilators will quickly circulate 
all the vapors arising from the hogs, and force the warm 
air up along the inclined ceiling, where it passes out through 
the ventilators. 



38 HOG PACKING PLANT 

The floor is well drained to the sewers and insulated so 
that water will not freeze on it during cold weather. 
Hog Coolers and Warehouse 

The hogs are chilled on the fourth floor of the pork 
warehouse and this is divided by a fire-wall into two separate 
sections and used for cold storage purposes only. 

The coolers have a hanging capacity of 2900 hogs and 
the floor-space is divided into four large coolers and each of 
these is subdivided by a cross-partition into two sections. 
This arrangement is made necessary by the use of the spray 
system of refrigeration, which requires more width in the 
coolers than is usually required when pipe-coils are 
installed. 

The fifth story floor plan (Fig. 21) shows the arrange- 
ment of the brine loft and the location of the warm and 
cold air-ducts. 

The hog cutting room is located adjoining the coolers 
and the trimmings for sausage-meats and lard refining are 
dropped to the trimming room on the floor below. 

On the third floor is located the offal freezer and 
sausage cooler and a large curing room for dry salt meats. 

The second floor is used for freezer storage and for dry 
salt meat curing. 

The first floor is used in part for storage of lard, sweet 
pickle meat curing vats and as a shipping room. The cellar 
is used entirely for sweet pickle meat curing. 

Salt storage is provided under the loading platform 
where salt can be dumped directly from cars into storage. 
Manufacturing Building 

This is four stories high with cellar. The top floor is 
one large, open room, well ventilated, and fitted up with 
rails for hanging smoked meats and sausage before they 
are packed and boxed for shipment. 

The third floor is used for sausage manufacturing and 
lard refining. The location is convenient to the sausage 
cooler, smoke house and trimming rooms in the adjoining 
building. The prime steam lard is pumped over from the 
tank house. 




i 




^<>t 



FIG. 16— FIRST STORY FLOOR PLAN— HOG KILLING PLANT. (SEE CHAPTER IV). 



, rtewnc caatiQ ».jfft««N 



<?'ifi 



DO* DTOSAGC f-CCBMCKit 






,..ia- 



tK*Nc Ta-HDwoa 






I 1 »:,, .J, ,» ■ 






■f 



11 






^FTTT TT 



-j — ]--]- -'t — t" 

' MEMCURINQ 



PIG. 17— CEI^I^AR FLOOR PI.AN— HOG KILLING PLANT. 
(SEE CHAPTER IV). 






Iritjt 



OOOO' 



on ,,;oi,-j ^ 



IC 



» f M.,j.,s,.> ' " I f ' 



iim 



FIG. 19— THIRD STORY FLOOR PLAN— HOG KILLING PLANT. 
(SEE CHAPTER IVV 




v:.', ric: ■;.:.Q KK ' 



; H 



g 



niuvixooici 



g;. -r- — 



IHrtTTTT 



irM CUBING P 



PIG. IS— SECOND STORY FLOOR PLAN— HOG KILLING PLANT. 
(SEE CHAPTER IV). 



Ksr I ' 




«_^___ -^— ' 


D 


~iad k'k 

1 




- . ^-- ^;i 1 










ir-.-.:-^^'? 



=1 






^i^- 





;-' ■•: ■ ■' 


- - * 




rc\i ojnvj 




-'T ■- 


'^.."^^■■' 


'. ■ i 








iVi.;*-"'."' 



FIG 20— FOURTH STORY FLOOR PLAN— HOG KILLING PLANT, 
(SEE CHAPTER IV). 



n 




FIG. 21-FIFTH STORY FLOOR PLAN— HOG KILLING PLANT 
(SEE CHAPTER IV). 



•t I li MEAT CUBING h ij 

'jL jh A ri|±. A 



J!:!i=VL-.l'l -J | l II I < 




MOU WOJXD COLD OTODAGl BUILDING 



SHIPPING 



nfe 4^ d^ 

JLAUGtiTED noax 



TOMEI?6cPCN3 



PIG. 22— SECTION AA— HOG KILLING PLANT. (SEE CHAPTER IV). 




MANUrACTU0NG DUILDiNG ' COLD JTODAGH 

FIG. 23— SECTION BB— HOG KILLING PLANT. (SEE CHAPTER IV). 



HOG PACKING PLANT 39 

The manufacturing floor is lighted and ventilated on 
three sides and the sausage cook room is open to the roof, 
through the story above. 

The sausage equipment includes two hashers, two 
cutters, one mixer, and two stutFmg tables. Overhead 
tracks are placed alongside the stuffing tables and the 
sausage is hung on trolleys and run into the smoke houses. 
The tracks extend from here to the cook room, where the 
sausage is cooked in steel vats. The cooler is fitted up with 
rails and racks for hanging sausage before it is packed. 

The lard refinery is equipped with refining kettles, 
filter presses, receivers, agitators and lard rolls for making 
prime steam lard. Part of the equipment is shown on the 
second story fioor plan (Fig. 18). 

Neutral and kettle-rendered lard are hashed and 
melted on the third floor and the flnished lard is strained 
and packed on the second floor. 

The flrst floor is used in part for the main office of the 
plant and as a general shipping and storage room for boxed 
goods. Orders are here made up for delivery, either by 
wagon or rail, and covered loading platforms are built on 
both sides of the shipping room. 

The cellar is used for soaking and washing sweet 
pickled meats before they are taken to the smoke houses. 
Smoke Houses 

These are three stories high with flring pits in the 
cellar. The building is shut off from the manufacturing 
building and all communication is through standard vesti- 
bules with'double fire-doors. 

The sausage smokers are on the third floor with firing 
pits on the floor below. * 

All smoke houses are equipped with overhead rails and 
the meat is hung on trolleys in the cellar and taken up on 
the elevator and run into the smoke houses. 

The capacity of each house is 12 trolleys with 450 
pounds of meat each, or 5400 pounds per floor. This will 
give a total smoking capacity above one fire of about 16,000 
pounds, and altogether 96,000 pounds in the six houses. 



CHAPTER V 



PLANS AND DESCRIPTION OF A CHICAGO 
PACKING PLANT 

In Figures 24 to 27, inclusive, is illustrated a small, 
compactly built plant, erected in Chicago, 111., on a limited 
ground area, bounded by streets and alleys. 

The plant is operated under Government inspection 
and has a capacity of 300 cattle, 400 sheep and 300 hogs 
per day. While the coolers are designed for this capacity, 
the killing floor is large enough for handling a considerable 
increase in the output. This is sold principally to the retail 
trade in Chicago, and is delivered by wagon from the front 
of the plant. Provision was also made for shipment of 
beef in carload lots, and railroad tracks were provided for 
at the rear of the property to handle car shipments. 
Another track was placed on the south end of the plant 
for the receipt of live stock. 

The available space at the time the plant was built 
was limited to the area shown on the ground floor plans. 
Figure 25. The space was divided by brick walls into 
separate occupancies and arranged so that the principal 
requirements of the insurance companies could be complied 
with. 

The slaughter house is centrally located, with the 
cooler building on one side and the tank house, power plant 
and other departments on the opposite side. 

The killing is done on the fourth floor and the room 
is well hghted and ventilated by windows on three sides 
and by skyhghts. Six killing beds for cattle were pro- 
vided, giving a daily capacity of 400 cattle. The space 



A CHICAGO PACKING PLANT 



41 



reserved for sheep killing is ample for the handling of 400 
sheep. 

The hog kiUing space is enclosed by a solid partition, 
in order to confine the steam from the scalding tub and 
scraper. The daily output of 300 hogs requires about four 
hours' time for slaughtering, on account of the short dress- 








'■■».- 



nif^ 






i^:# 
^-.r 



&^ 



FIG. 24— PACKING PLANT OP PFAELZER & SONS, CHICAGO, ILL. 



ing rail and the limited floor space. The space over the 
killing floor is used in part for the storage of empty trolleys 
and gambrels, and also as dressing and toilet rooms for the 
employees working on that floor. 

The offal is handled on the third floor, in the space 
adjoining the tank house. The remaining part of the floor 
is occupied by the fat chilling vats, hasher and oleo melting 



42 A CHICAGO PACKING PLANT 

kettles. The second floor is used for oleo clarifying and 
draw-off, lard refining, bone cooking and storage. 

On the first floor is the hanging and packing room for 
smoked meats, oleo and lard storage, cooper shop and ship- 
ping room. Hides and tallow are stored in the cellar. 

The cooler building is five stories high, with a cellar, 
and is arranged so that the loading court for wagons, on 
the street side, is made a part of the building. The third 
floor and the stories above are built out to the sidewalk line 
and extend over the loading court below. 

The longitudinal section of the building, Figure 27, 
shows the occupancy of all the floors. The top story is the 
refrigerating loft for the coolers on the third and fourth 
floors. The hanging capacity of the fourth story cooler is 
875 hogs, 300 cattle and 400 sheep. 

On the third floor is an offal cooler and hanging room 
for 750 cattle. The rear of this room connects with the 
car-shipping platform and all shipments by rail are made 
from the third floor level on account of the elevation of the 
railroad track. 

The first story cooler has a hanging capacity of 500 
cattle and is refrigerated by a low pipe loft in the mezza- 
nine deck between the first and third floors. This arrange- 
ment brings the third floor of the cooler building to the 
same level as the third floor of the slaughter house. The 
cooler is used also as a wholesale market and is fitted up 
with cutting tables and racks. 

The cellar in this case is used for the curing of pork 
products and has a storage capacity of 800,000 pounds of 
meat. 

The offices of the plant are over the loading court and 
the corresponding space on the fourth floor is used for 
freezer storage and hog cutting, while the sausage factory 
is on the fifth floor. 

The tank house is built of flreproof construction, with 
separate compartments for edible and inedible products. 
The equipment includes the necessary tanks and machin- 




1- o 

o O 






FIG. 26— I'^OURTH STORY FLOOR Pl.AJ«f. (SEE CHAPTER V). 




FIG. 27— LONGITUDINAL SECTION. (SEE CHAPTER V). 



A CHICAGO PACKING PLANT 43 

ery to handle the products, mcluding fertihzer press and 
drier. 

The smoke houses are three stories high with firing 
pits in the cellar. The capacity of each house is 5400 
pounds of meat on each floor, which gives a total smoking 
capacity of 33,000 pounds. 

The live stock pens are built five stories high with 
inclined runways extending from floor to floor. The large 
openings in the outside walls are made continuous through 
all stories and covered with louvres. 

The power plant is located so that the coal can be 
dumped from the railroad cars directly in front of the 
boilers. 

The plant is of mill construction, with the exception of 
the tank house, which is built of reinforced concrete. The 
insurance requirements were complied with in all details 
of the construction and fireproof vestibules built where the 
arrangement and space would permit. The rate of insur- 
ance on the plant is as follows : 

Cooler Building $0.65 

Slaughter House 1.43 

Stock Pens 0.90 

Tank House 0.66 

Power Plant 1.43 

Smoke Houses 1.93 

The rate on the contents, $0.96. 

The cost of the building, including all equipment, was 

$205,000.00. 



CHAPTER VI 

KILLING FLOORS 

Cattle and Sheep Killing Floor 

In Figures 28 and 29 is illustrated a killing floor, which 
is designed according to the most modern practice of hand- 
ling cattle and sheep. The arrangement provides for eight 
cattle beds, with a capacity of 600 cattle per day, and the 
sheep-killing ring is designed for 150 sheep per hour. 

The size of the building and all principal dimensions 
are given in the illustrations. It will be noticed that con- 
veyors are used for the transfer of beef carcasses, wherever 
these are suspended from overhead rails. By using con- 
veyors it is always possible to have an even distribution of 
carcasses throughout the killing floor and to regulate the 
speed at which it is desirable to perform the work. They 
will also help to eliminate congestion and delay on the 
killing floor when inexperienced or less efficient labor is 
employed. 

By referring to the plan, Figure 28, the process of 
cattle killing can easily be followed. The animals are 
driven into the knocking pens, which are built to hold two 
cattle in each pen. The knocker stuns the cattle and oper- 
ates the hoist, which raises the knocking pen gates and 
floor. The carcasses are thereby rolled out on the killing 
floor, where they are shackled and hoisted to the bleeding 
rail. This rail is placed 15 feet above the floor level and 
runs alongside of a conveyor, which extends the full length 
of the room. The man who does the sticking stands near 
the knocking pens so that the cattle are thoroughly bled 
when they are at the lower end of the rail. At this point 
the head is taken off and thrown on the inspection table at 



KILLING FLOORS 



45 



the other side of the rail. The conveyor now makes a turn 
and pulls the carcass to the drop-off rails in front of each 




FIG. 28 — BEEF AND SHEEP KILLING FLOOR. 

bed. From here they are lowered to the floor by a friction 
hoist and pritched up for the floor work. 

The hide dropping, gutting and splitting is done on the 
dressing conveyor, in the rear of the beds. The hide is 



46 



KILLING FLOORS 



dropped before the carcass reaches the guttmg table. This 
table or bench is about 24 feet long and is placed on hydrau- 
lic jacks so that it can be easily and quickly raised and low- 
ered to suit the size of the carcasses which are handled. 
The last conveyor brings the finished carcass to the scale 
in front of the door leading to the cooler. All carcasses 
which are retained by the Government inspectors are hung 
in the retaining room to await the final inspection. 

The sheep killing arrangement includes a wheel hoist 
which is placed in the catch pen adjoining the cattle knock- 
ing pens. The sheep are shackled and hoisted to the stick- 
ing rail and are thoroughly bled by the time they reach the 




FIG. 29— SECTION THROUGH KILLING FLOOR. 

end of the rail. From the bleeding rail they are transferred 
to the legging rail and from there to the dressing conveyor, 
where they are skinned and dressed. They are then hung 
on sheep logs, weighed, and run into the cooler. 

The principal rail heights are given in the Section, 
Figure 29, w^hich also shows the manner in which the kill- 
ing floor is lighted and ventilated. 

The construction is of reinforced concrete with the 
exception of the timber framing for rails and machinery. 
Details of Cattle Killing Floor 

In Figures 30 and 31 is illustrated in detail the arrange- 
ment of the cattle killing floor of the plant, which was 
described in Chapter III. Before the animals are slaugh- 
tered they are kept in the large resting-pens, outside of 



KILLING FLOORS 



49 



the building, and are then driven into the knocking pens, 
in front of each killing bed. These pens are four feet wide 
and eight feet long and will accommodate two cattle (see 
detail in Pig. 32). Where single knocking pens are used 
they should be made only three feet wide, so that the 
animals cannot turn around in the pen. After the animals 
have been stunned they are rolled out on the killing floor 
by the raising of the front gate and the pivoted floor. They 




FIG. 32 — DETAIL OP KNOCKING PEN. 



are then hoisted to the inclined bleed-rails by a friction 
hoist, placed above the rails, and suspended until all blood 
has run out. The rail is supported by heavy cast-iron 
hangers which are bolted to a 12xl2-inch yellow pine tim- 
ber, suspended from the framework above. The cattle are 
lowered to the floor by the drop-off hoist and after the 
floor-work on the carcasses is flnished they are hoisted by 
the splitting hoist to the wash rails, which are placed twelve 
feet above the floor level. 



50 



KILLING FLOORS 



All hoists are of the friction type, with double wheels 
operating against a paper friction (see Fig. 33). The fric- 
tion drum, 12 inches in diameter, runs at 200 revolutions 
per minute. The sizes of the wheels are 52x10 inches and 
40x10 inches, with 8xl2-inch drums, keyed to the same 
shaft. The larger wheels are used for hoisting and lower- 
ing the carcasses to and from the bleed-rail, and the 
smaller wheels operate the gates and splitting trees. 

The hoists are driven by an electric motor and are 
operated by pulling a hand rope which raises a lever and 
brings the wheel in contact with the friction which starts 
the hoist. By dropping the lever, the action is discontinued 




FIG. 33— FRICTION HOIST FOR BEEF KILLING. 

and the hoist immediately stops. The action of the hand 
rope should be compounded by using an intermediate lever 
as illustrated in the sectional drawing. All hoisting 
sheaves should be fastened to heavy eye-bolts in the ceiling 
and the rope-sheaves suspended from 6x6-inch timbers 
bolted to the concrete roof slab. It is very important that 
all bolts be carefully and accurately located before the con- 
crete is poured, so that the hoisting sheaves will come in 
the required location over the rails. 

The washing and dressing of the carcasses is done on 
moving conveyors which are driven by an electric motor, 
placed on the frame-work above the killing floor. 



KILLING FLOORS 



51 



All offal is dropped to the floor through separate 
chutes, which are built into the floor. The detail of the 
paunch and gut chutes is illustrated by Figure 34. Under- 
neath these chutes are placed inchned galvanized iron 
troughs in which the guts and paunches slide to the clean- 
ing tables on the offal floor. Heads and feet are dropped 
through holes in the killing floor and are cleaned and 
handled downstairs. 




OLGTIONI 

PIG. 34— PAUNCH AND GUT CHUTE. 

The killing floor is hghted on ah four sides by double 
rows of windows. The upper row of windows has double, 
pivoted sash, which are opened by an operating device 
arranged to open all the sash on one side at the same time. 
The large ventilators over the bleed-rails are made to open 
and close as may be desired. 

The hatchway for the crip hoist, which is shown on the 
outside of the building, is used for the hoisting of crippled 



52 KILLING FLOORS 

cattle to the killing floor. The power is furnished by a fric- 
tion hoist, which is operated from the same line shafts 
which drive the cattle hoists. 

The section Figure 31 shows how the floor is pitched 
to the gutters. It will be noticed that there is a concrete 
curb placed alongside the posts in front of the knocking 
pens, to prevent any of the drainage waste on this part of 
the floor from reaching the blood-gutter. . 

The floor is paved with vitrifled brick 4x8x11/4 inches 
thick, which are slushed and grouted with Portland cement. 
The floor is level for a distance of 6 feet where the floor- 
work is done, and pritch plates are built into it at the ends 
of the bleed-rails. These plates are 22 inches wide and 
36 inches long and are made of 1-inch cast-iron with a 
checkered top-surface, to prevent the pritch from slipping. 

Arrangement of Beef Offal Floor 

In Figure 35 is illustrated an arrangement for the 
handling of beef offal on a large scale. This equipment is 
located on the floor directly below the killing floor and the 
offal is dropped through holes in the floor and conveyed 
by gravity chutes to the place where it is handled and 
cleaned. 

The drawing shows in detail what equipment will be 
required to economically handle and convert all offal into 
a finished product, and illustrates how this equipment can 
be arranged to best advantage. 

Hog Killing Arrangement 

In Figure 36 is presented a sectional view of an arrange- 
ment for slaughtering hogs on a large scale. 

The plan of this killing floor is shown in Figure 37. 
The plant is laid out for a capacity of 1500 hogs per day. 

It will be noticed that the shackling pen, sticking pen 
and the scalding tub are all in a straight line, with the 
scraper at right angles to the tub and the moving-bench 
parallel with the tub. This makes a practical and con- 
venient arrangement without crowding the equipment. 

The hogs are driven into the waiting pens and from 



KILLING FLOORS 



53 



there to the shackling pens, on either side of the double 
hog wheel. These pens are four feet six inches wide, which 
is about the maximum width for the convenient shackling 
of hogs. If the pens are made wider than this, the hogs 
will be so far away that the shackler cannot conveniently 
reach the wheel. 




FIG. 35 — PLAN OF BEEF OFFAL FLOOR. 



The floor of the pen is eight feet above the main killing 
floor and the diameter of the hog wheel is 12 feet wide. 
This is set four feet_off the floor, and the height of this 
part of the slaughter house must be 27 feet. 

The hog wheel is operated by an electric motor, which 
drives also a friction hoist, used for picking up any hogs 
which may have dropped off the rail. 



KILLING FLOORS 



55 



The sticking rails are 56 feet long with a three-foot 
incline from the wheel to the scalding tub. The rails are 
one and one-half inches in diameter and are fastened with 
cast-iron hangers to 10xl4-inch yehow pine timbers. These 
are suspended from the concrete roof with one and one- 
quarter-inch rods on eight-foot centers. The floor of the 
sticking pen is divided by a concrete curb into two sepa- 
rately drained sections, one for blood and one for water. 
The blood is piped to the receiver in the tank house. 

At the end of the sticking rail there is built a drop-off 




FIG. 38 — HOG SCRAPER — HORIZONTAL, BEATER TYPE. 



gallery alDOve the scalding tub, where the shackles are 
returned to the pen as soon as the hogs are dropped off the 
rail. \ 

The scalding tub is built of reinforced concrete and is 
placed so that the top of the tub will come eight feet eleven 
inches above the floor. This height is determined by the 
type of scraper to be used. In this instance, the scraper 
was an AUbright-Nell vertical machine of the beater type 
(Fig. 38). The size of the scalding tub is: Length, forty 
feet; width, five feet nine inches inside, and the depth is 



56 KILLING FLOORS 

three feet six inches. On each side of the tub is a plank 
walli for the use of the scalders. 

When the hog is properly scalded it is picked up by 
the conveyor in the scraping machine and passed through 
a series of revolving beaters. The clean hogs are dropped 
from the conveyor at the delivery end of the machine onto 
the scraping bench. This is 28 feet long and four feet wide, 
with a moving top, supported on galvanized angle iron 
framework. The slats are made of maple and are fastened 
to a moving chain with roller bearings. The driving gear 
is located under the table and arranged with a direct drive 
from an electric motor. The top of the table is eight feet 
four inches above the floor and the gambrel rail is 20 inches 
above the rail, which gives a height of 10 feet for the hog 
dressing rail. 

The hogs are kept moving on the rail by a conveyor 
which is arranged for a variable speed, so that the number 
of hogs killed per hour can be increased or decreased as 
desired. 

The essential requirement of a hog killing floor is 
good light and ventilation. This can only be provided 
where the killing is done on the top floor, so that the venti- 
lators or skylights can be built in the roof. 

The Government recommends that the scalding tub 
and scraper be placed within a separate inclosure, so as 
to keep the steam away from the hog dressing floor. 

Mechanical ventilation is generally installed in larger 
killing floors and the air is heated, during cold weather, 
before it is delivered to the ventilating ducts. This will most 
effectively remove all steam and vapors and will greatly 
improve conditions on the killing floor. 

Hog Cutting Room 

In Figure 39 is illustrated the arrangement of a hog 
cutting room with a capacity of 600 hogs. 

These are brought in on the rail from the adjoining 
cooler and elevated by the inchned conveyor to the moving 
cutting table, where the hams are cut off. These are 



KILLING FLOORS 



57 



thrown onto the ham table and trimmed and afterwards 
dropped through an opening in the floor to the curing cellar 
below. The remainder of the hog is carried to the chop- 
ping block and there cut up; the shoulders and sides slide 
on inclined chutes to tables on the floor, where they are 




FIG. 39 — PLAN OF HOG CUTTING* ROOM. 



made into their respective cuts, which are dropped to the 
curing cellar below. 'An overhead rail is placed alongside 
all tables for hanging off fresh pork cuts, which are run 
into the sales cooler. 

The equipment includes a head splitter, belly roller 
and back fat skinner, which are operated from a counter- 



58 KILLING FLOORS 

shaft on the ceiling, driven by a 5-H. P. motor. The hog 
conveyor and cutting tables are driven by another 5-H. P. 
motor hung from the ceiling. 

The cutting room is insulated with four inches of cork 
and all windows are made with a double thickness of glass. 
The room is not refrigerated except by the cold air which 
may leak through from the cold storage rooms above and 
below or from the adjoining hog coolers. 



■ CHAPTER VII 

PACKING HOUSE COOLERS 

Cold storage in packing plants has heretofore largely 
been confined to such requirements as would take care of 
the chilling and curing of the output until ready for ship- 
ment. The growing use of refrigerated space by the pack- 
ers is due to the advantages of having facilities on their 
premises in which to store their cured and frozen products 
over seasons. These commodities would otherwise be sent 
to a public warehouse and pay storage charges in addition 
to the expense of transfer and return shipment. By hav- 
ing sufficient cold storage room at the plant, the packer 
partly eliminates this expense and is able to increase his 
killing output at the time of the year when live stock is 
most plentiful and can be killed to the best advantage. 

The cost of refrigeration is less to the packer than to 
the cold storage owner, since the engine room and over- 
head expense is partly absorbed by the plant operation. For 
this reason we find that many plants are in a position to 
store all of their own products, as well as other commodi- 
ties, such as poultry, butter and eggs in season. 

Cold storage in packing plants is more diversified from 
the standpoint of construction than is required in commer- 
cial cold storage buildings. The application of refrigera- 
tion to the various processes of meat handling requires cold 
storage facilities which must be designed so that the 
various products may be handled and stored according to 
the best packing house practice. Each kind of storage 
must be built so as to properly take care of the product 
dealt with. 



60 PACKING HOUSE COOLERS 

It is not alone sufficient to provide for rooms with the 
proper temperature. It is equally important that the cir- 
culation and humidity of the air be such as will retain the 
appearance and quality of the meats and without undue 
shrinkage while it is kept in storage. The methods of 
handling the products will also enter into the details of 
construction in order to provide the necessary equipment 
and facilities required in each kind of storage. 

This chapter will be devoted to special requirements 
pertaining only to packing house coolers. The general 
features of cold storage construction are set forth in detail 
in later chapters and the reader is therefore referred to that 
part of the book for all inforniation regarding the proper 
construction of walls, floors, insulation, etc. 

Principle of Construction in Beef and Hog Coolers 

A perfect circulation of the air is the most important 
requirement in coolers where warm meat is hung for chill- 
ing. When the carcasses of beef and hogs are brought to 
the coolers from the killing floor, the animal heat must be 
removed as rapidly as it emanates from the meat. Unless 
this is done, the moist vapors which are produced by the 
rapid chilling of the hot meat will condense on the walls 
and ceiling of the cooler, and the air, instead of being pure 
and dry, will become foul and saturated with moisture. 
This affects not only the quality of the meat, but makes 
it slimy and unattractive in appearance. 

In order to provide a proper circulation of air, it is 
necessary to build a refrigerating loft above the cooler, 
with an arrangement of ducts and openings which will 
furnish a natural gravity circulation. The air must be 
removed from below and passed over the cooling coils 
before it again reaches the hanging room. 

This arrangement is illustrated in Figure 40. The 
warm air duct along the wall acts as a chimney and draws 
the warm air and vapors rising from the meat, up to the 
loft above, where it circulates among the cooling pipes and 
condenses and parts with its moisture. The heavier cold 



PACKING HOUSE COOLERS 



61 



air, now dried and free from moisture, falls through the 
cold air duct on the other side of the room, thereby pro- 
ducing a natural gravity circulation. 

The arrangement of coolers and pipe lofts is fully 
illustrated in the plans and sections of packing house 
plants, shown in the preceding chapters. 




FIG. 40 — SECTION SHOWING AIR CIRCULA^TIGN IN COOLER. 



Refrigerating Lofts Over Beef Coolers 

In Figure 41 is indicated the construction of a refrig- 
erating loft over beef and sheep coolers. The floor is sup- 
ported on 6x1 2-inch yellow pine joists, which also carry 
the hangers for the beef rails. The 3x3-inch wood strip, 
laid over the joists, is cut out for the bolt-heads in order 



62 



PACKING HOUSE COOLERS 



to give room for tightening up the hanger bolts. The con- 
struction above consists of a beveled nailing strip, over 
which is laid an insulated floor or drip pan. The beveled 
strip is put in to provide an 8-inch slope for the floor to 
the drain outlets and it also gives a similar slope to the 
ceiling of the cooler so that the air will circulate more 
freely towards the warm air ducts. 

The floor is constructed with one layer of %-inch 
V-groove boards, nailed at each bearing; over this is laid 




PIG. 41 — DETAIL OF PIPE LOFT FOR BEEF, COOLER. 



one thickness of waterproof insulating paper and %x6-inch 
dressed and matched flooring. This is covered with two 
inches of corkboard, laid in hot asphalt and finished with 
1^4x6-inch surfaced lumber, securely nailed to the 2x2-inch 
nailing strips, laid between the cork boards. The floor is 
covered with a galvanized iron pan of No. 22 American 
ingot iron, which is put down to make an absolutely water- 
tight floor. It should, therefore, be very carefully laid, with 
soldered joints, and thoroughly tested out. 



PACKING HOUSE COOLERS 63 

At one end of the pipe loft there should be provided a 
walk for convenience in operating the valves on the 
refrigerating coils. The floor and air ducts are stopped 
within 30 inches of the wall and a 2-inch plank curb put 
up along the edge of the pan, to prevent any water from 
spilhng over the sides. The walk is laid with 2x1 0-inch 
planks, placed two inches apart. These openings will pro- 
vide an increased circulation of air along the wall in the 
cooler and will be found to be of great advantage, on 
account of the stopping of the air ducts above, at this point. 

The partition for the warm air duct is constructed 
with 2x4-inch studding placed three feet apart. Each side 
of the studs is covered with one layer of insulating paper 
and one thickness of %x6-inch dressed and matched 
boards. The space between the studding is filled with two 
inches of corkboard, put up with all joints sealed with hot 
asphalt. 

The partition is capped with a 2x8-inch beveled plank, 
placed at the same distance from the ceiling as the width 
of the air duct. Where ceiling beams or other obstructions 
would interfere with the proper circulation of the air, the 
partition should be placed so as to leave a full opening at 
all points of the duct. When there is cold storage above 
it is not necessary to insulate the ceiling over the pipe-loft. 
There is a tendency, however, for moisture to condense 
on an uninsulated ceiling wheuxcver there is a difference 
in the temperature on two floors and this is frequently the 
condition in coolers when warm beef is put in. The slight 
drip from the ceiling would only be annoying over the open- 
ings in the air ducts, since the floor of the coil loft is 
watertight. * 

In order to overcome this defect, the ceiling over the 
air ducts should be covered with %"iiich yellow pine boards 
which are nailed to lx2-inch cleats, fastened to the ceiling. 
Pipe-Lofts Over Hog Coolers 

Hog coolers are divided into sections or tunnels by 
placing partitions between the posts. These are generally 



64 



PACKING HOUSE COOLERS 



spaced 16 feet on centers, which provides room in each 
cooler for six hanging rails. 

The partitions should be insulated with two inches of 
corkboard or other material of equal insulating value and 
should extend from the floor of the cooler to the ceiling of 
the pipe-loft. The arrangement of the air ducts in hog 
coolers must be different from that of beef coolers, on 
account of the greater amount of warm meat which is 
placed in the hog coolers at one time. The warm air and 




DLTML JnOWINO \N^L^^ 
^ LMD t>AY 
CON^TILUCTION 



PIG. 42 — DETAIL, OF PIPE LOFT FOR HOG COOLER. 



vapors must be cooled off more rapidly than in beef coolers 
and an increased circulation of air and more refrigerating 
pipes must be provided. 

In Figure 42 is illustrated the construction of the pipe- 
loft. Two warm air ducts, 16 inches wide, are placed one 
on each side of the room and a cold air duct, 18 inches 
wide, in the center. With this arrangement of ducts, the 
air need only travel one-half the width of the cooler before 
it reaches the warm air flue to the pipe-loft. 



PACKING HOUSE COOLERS 



65 



The construction of the floor and partitions is similar 
to that described for beef coolers and the illustration is 
sufficiently clear to explain everything in detail, so that no 
further description will be given. 

The canvas curtain which is placed over the center of 
the cold air duct is put in to deflect the air downwards, 
after passing over the cooling pipes. 
Detail of Refrigerating Loft for Spray System 

In Figure 43 is indicated the construction of a refrig- 
erating loft where brine is sprayed through the room to 
cool the air in the hog cooler below. These are made two 
sections wide, with dividing partitions at every other post 
line, and are arranged with one cold and one warm air duct. 




PIG. 43 — BRINE LOFT FOR SPRAY SYSTEM. 



at opposite sides of the cooler. A gravity circulation is 
created by the movement of the air in the loft towards the 
cold air duct and a corresponding movement of air in the 
cooler towards the warm air duct. 

The concrete floor or drip pan is built with an incline 
of two feet and is insulated with four iiiches of corkboard, 
laid in hot asphalt pitch. The finished surface is made 
waterproof with 5-ply roofing felt, applied with odorless 
roofing pitch. 

The partition for the warm air duct is built of 4-inch 
brick or hollow tile and is insulated with three inches of 
corkboard, which is finished with Portland cement plaster. 
The construction is fireproof throughout except for the 



66 



PACKING HOUSE COOLERS 



4x1 0-inch timbers which support the hog-rails in the cooler. 
These supports could be made of structural steel in case 
it would be desirable to entirely eliminate wood in the 
construction. 

Curtain System of Refrigeration 

In Figure 44 is indicated a system of exposed brine 




FIG. 44— GARDNER'S CURTAIN SYSTEM. 



circulation patented by Mr. H. C. Gardner, of Chicago, 111. 
This system has been used in some of the largest plants in 
Chicago. The principle of operation is as follows: In the 
refrigerating loft above the cooler is hung a series of cur- 
tains, or cloths, suspended from the ceiling. Over each 



PACKING HOUSE COOLERS 67 

curtain is placed a brine trough which is filled with cool 
chloride of sodium brine. This overflows the trough and 
trickles down over the cloth to the floor below. The warm 
air from the cooler comes in contact with the cold brine 
and is chilled and purified before it passes down through 
the cold air ducts at the opposite side of the bunker. 

Mr. Gardner makes the following statement regarding 
the adaptability of his system for packing house refrig- 
eration : 

"Experience has shown that the vapors coming off the 
warm product are rapidly absorbed, and the air is main- 
tained at the most desirable state of humidity; that there 
is rapid refrigeration without undue drying, and that the 
air is largely purified by coming in contact with the wet 
surface of the sheets." 

Temperatures in Beef Coolers 

When the beef is brought to the cooler from the killing- 
fioor, it is first placed in the fore cooler, or warm beef chill 
room, where the temperature should be from 45° to 48° 
Fahr. This temperature is maintained until the killing is 
finished and the refrigeration is then turned on in all coils, 
so as to bring the temperature down to 38° Fahr. This 
should be accomplished in about 12 hours' time, so as not 
to chill the beef too rapidly. The beef is then taken to the 
storage cooler and hung in a temperature of 34° to 35° 
Fahr. until shipped. 

Temperatures in Hog Coolers 

The usual practice in hog coolers is to have the rooms 
at a temperature of 30° Fahr. when the hogs are run in 
from the killing floor. The temperature will quickly rise 
as the number of warm hogs increases, but it should not 
be allowed to rise about 45° Fahr. When this temperature 
is reached, the door should be closed and the remaining 
hogs run into the next cooler, until the temperature in the 
first cooler begins to go down. The following card gives the 
proper temperature for chilling hogs until they are ready 
for cutting : 



68 PACKING HOUSE COOLERS 

Fill Cooler 30° to 32° Fahr. Temperature Hams-108F. 

Temp. Cooler at 11 P. M. same day 34F. Temp. Hams-44 to 46F. 
Temp. Cooler at 7 A. M. next A. M. 32F. Temp. Hams-40 to 42F. 
Temp. Cooler at 7 P. M. next P. M. 30F. Temp. Hams-34 to 35F. 
Temp. Cooler at 7 A. M. 2nd Day 28F. Temp. Hams-32 to 33F. 

When the hogs are not cut ^vithin 48 hours after killmg 
the temperature of the cooler should not be below 31° 
Fahr. 



CHAPTER VIII 
TANK HOUSES 

The designing of tank houses, or rendering plants, as 
they are frequently called, requires a thorough knowledge 
of the equipment which is needed to operate these plants. 
The building must be designed around the equipment, so 
to speak. The size of all tanks and machinery should be 
decided upon and laid out to scale on the drawings before 
the construction work is started, so that the necessary 
supports and openings in the floor can be properly pro- 
vided for at the time the building is erected. 

As tank houses are considered one of the greatest fire- 
risks among packing house buildings, and since they carry 
the highest basis rate of insurance, they should be built 
fireproof and the recommendations of the Board of Under- 
writers complied with in all parts of the construction. 

Sanitary conditions in a tank house are, at their best, 
far from satisfactory, on account of the nature of the busi- 
ness. The construction and equipment should, therefore, 
include all the features and ^ improvements which will 
assist in keeping the building clean and odorless. 

The floors must be of impervious materials and laid 
with good drainage to the sewers. The walls should be plas- 
tered with cement mortar for at least four feet above the 
floor line and given a hard, smooth surface which can be 
washed down and kept clean. 

Light and ventilation should be provided for on as 
many sides of the building as the arrangement of the plant 
will permit and if ventilating flues are built in the walls, 
they will materially assist in carrying off the steam and 
odors. 



70 



TANK HOUSES 



The equipment should include vapor condensers for 
all tanks and driers, and these must be operated contin- 
uously during the hours of cooking and drying. 

The health, department in many cities does not permit 
the operation of tank houses within the city limits unless 




FIG. 4 5 — CELLAR FLOOR PLAN. 



precaution is taken to eliminate the odors. They require 
that all windows and doors be kept closed and insist upon 
a system of mechanical ventilation whereby the air is 
exhausted from the building and discharged into the lower 
end of an air-washing tower. The construction of this 
tower must be such that the air will be washed and purified 



TANK HOUSES 



71 



by passing through a continuous spray of water before it 
l-eachesthe outside atmosphere. 

In Figures 45 to 48, inclusive, is illustrated the arrange- 
ment of a modern fireproof tank house, designed to handle 
edible and inedible products, under Government super- 
vision. 




PLMFOCM 
FIG. 46 — FIRST STORY FLOOR PLAN. 



The building is three stories high, with a cellar, and 
is divided by an 8-inch brick wall into two sections above 
the first floor. On one side is the edible department and on 
the other the inedible is located. 

There is no direct connection between the two depart- 
ments; separate stairways are provided and all entrances 
to the rooms are from the outside. The cellar is undivided 
and is used for the pressing and drying of fertilizer. The 
building is located adjoining the fertilizer storage and has 



72 



TANK HOUSES 



light and ventilation on three sides. Covered bridges on 
the third floor connect with the offal department and the 
meat trimming room, which are located on the third floor 
of the adjoining buildings. The construction is of reinforced 
concrete with brick walls. The floors are finished with 
cement mortar and pitched to the drain outlets with a slope 
of one-fourth of an inch per lineal foot. The walls are 
plastered below the window sills, which are placed four 
feet above the floor. 




FIG. 47 — SECOND STORY FLOOR PLAN. 



In order to provide open spaces for fight and ventila- 
tion around the rendering tanks, the second story floor is 
omitted with the exception of a narrow walk on each side 
of the tanks. 

This arrangement gives a high unobstructed cooking 
room with a double row of windows, and these, together 
with the large ventilating flues shown in the ceiling, will 
carry off the steam and odors from the cooking. 

The size of the building can be increased by removing 
the temporary brick wafi at the east end. This would leave 
the wall columns and beams exposed and these are designed 
to support the load from the new part of the building. 



TANK HOUSES 



1^ 



The equipment in the edible department consists of 
four rendering tanks, two open skimming boxes and two 
open lard receiving tanks. 

The inedible department is equipped with four render- 
ing tanks, two skimming boxes, one blood storage tank, one 
blood cooker and two grease receivers. All tanks are built 
of steel, riveted and caulked. 




FIG. 4S — SECTION THROUGH TANK HOUSE. 



The machinery shown on the cellar plan consists of 
one hydrauhc fertilizer press with pump, double press-car, 
two transfer cars and the necessary floor tracks. There 
are also two rotary fertilizer driers with electric motor and 
vapor condenser. 

The rendering tanks are filled on the third floor and 
the contents cooked under forty pounds steam pressure for 
about ten hours. 



74 TANK HOUSES 

When the pressure is off, the tank is allowed to settle 
and the lard or grease is drawn off into the receiving tanks 
on the first floor. The remaining residue in the bottom of 
the tanks is dumped into the skimming boxes below and 
left to settle. The lard and grease is then skimmed off 
the top and sent back to the rendering tanks to be re- 
cooked. The tankage left in the skimming box is removed 
from the bottom of the box and placed on heavy burlap 
cloth, laid between wooden racks on the press carriages. 
When the press is filled, the tankage is pressed to bring out 
the water and remaining grease and afterwards dried in 
the fertilizer driers. 

The tank water from the rendering tanks, skimming 
boxes and press is collected in the storage vats outside the 
building, where all of the remaining grease is skimmed off 
before the water is pumped over to the evaporators, located 
in the fertilizer building. 

In Figure 49 is illustrated the construction of a ren- 
dering tank with a cast iron head. This type of head has 
been patented and can be purchased from the patentee for 
a nominal sum. 

The advantage of having the tank built in this manner 
is evident to all who have used the old style of tank with 
dished head extending above the filling floor. These tanks 
rusted out very rapidly where they came in contact with 
the floor construction and the upper part had to be renewed 
long before the rest of the tank was worn out. With the 
cast iron head the main body of the tank is below the floor 
construction and allows the air to circulate around the 
tank. 

The small space occupied by the cast iron head on the 
filUng floor leaves more room to work around the tank and 
less opening for seepage water to find its way down along 
the sides of the tank. This is always objectionable, as the 
odor from dirty water, steaming on the hot tank, is very 
offensive. 



PMLNTED 

COT lUON MLKD 



OOLLML 



^■CIVt.T,3 5' PITCH 
-5TA>OCiLlJ.LD 




o^-5T ICON LUG 



flOTL 

DLVLL ^riLMI Jj C^LK 
AvLL^LAMO 1N:)IDL-Z!s 
OUT^IDL. 



•ISbTtAlOHTV/AY 
V^LVL(QUlCK. OPD4INC- 



FIG. 49 — DETAIL OF RENDERING TANK. 



ANOLE. .;WLTY' 

VALVE. lODN ■ 

CODY 

%■ UNION 




LXACL mOM ,5MLTY V»i.VL 

iV«i'1->|VeTLE- 
UNION 

^'e OUOfcL VALVt. 
lV"l'''e-\!'£'TLL 

^/e'OLO&t. VALVL 



POPiO,Ft,TY ' 

COONNtCTLD TO CONDLNiLCl 



V/zh''i^\yaTt.f.-> J 





'PMLNTLD MLAD 



^ 



b. 




FIG. 50- -RENDERING TANK WITH PIPE CONNECTIONS. 



TANK HOUSES 



11 



In Blgure 50 is illustrated a rendering tank with the 
necessary pipe connections, valves and fittings for complete 
operation. 



G^LV^NIZLD IBjON 
FLAJ>HINO 
l&,ON COLLML 




J)LGT10N 




1 ^ ^3J_JL_^ ^--1 



. {)Li\N 

PIG 51— DETAIL OF SUPPORTS FOR SUSPENDED RENDERING 

TANKS. 

In Figure 51 is illustrated the method of suspending 
the rendering tanks from the concrete floor construction 
above. 



78 



TANK HOUSES 



The tanks are carried by eight 1%-inch diameter bolts, 
made from genuine wrought iron. The lugs on the side of 
the tanks rest on the steel bearing plates between each pair 




^ dD L 



CENDeciNG 




DUMP QM'E 



RE.COEOING. TMEJJMOMtTER 
ON WA,LL FOC RtClSTEarj. 
INQ WATE.C TCMPEEAJURE 



^ 



VAPOE PIPE 
TO BOILER 
UOOM 




OVERFUOW TO 3EWEE-' 

FIG. 52— VAPOR CONDENSING SYSTEM FOR RENDERING TANKS. 

of bolts, and these plates should not be placed until the 
tanks are hoisted into position. The pipe sleeves around 
the bolts are built in the concrete. The bolts are placed 
after the floor is laid and the concrete floor flnished over 



TANK HOUSES 79 

the bolt heads. If the bolts rust out and have to be 
renewed, they can be easily pushed up through the cement 
finish and the new bolts slipped into place. The margin of 
safety is about 40 to 1, for the ordinary size tank, when 
filled. The ring around the opening in the floor, where the 
tank passes through, is anchored to the concrete with 
i/^-inch bolts and a curb formed around the opening. After 
the tanks are erected, the space around the cast iron head 
should be flashed with a galvanized iron collar in order to 
prevent the water on the filling floor from seeping through. 

In Figure 52 is illustrated a vapor condenser used for 
condensing the steam from the rendering tanks and blood 
cooker during the time of operation. Separate condensers 
must be used for each department. 

The drop leg of the condenser terminates in a sealed 
water receiver and the odors which are not absorbed by 
the water are carried off to the grates of the boilers and 
escape through the smoke stack. The overflow pipe from 
the water tank is connected with the sewer and a self- 
recording thermometer is placed on the tank to register 
the temperature of the water which is used for condensa- 
tion. In Chicago the records of the thermometer must be 
filed with the Health Department. 

In Figure 53 is illustrated the construction of a skim- 
ming box with a sliding gate for removing the tankage. 
These gates are especially made for this purpose and can 
be purchased from packing house supply dealers in 
Chicago. 

In Figure 54 is illustrated how the track for the fer- 
tilizer press is placed on the cellar floor. The press car and 
the transfer car run on 20-pound rails bolted to iron car- 
riages which are imbedded in the concrete floor. 

The height of the rails will be governed by the height 
of the press platform and the transfer car. However, the 
low rail should be at least one and one-half inches clear of 
the floor, so that the water will pass under the rails when 
the floor is cleaned up. 



80 



TANK HOUSES 



The blow tank, shown on the cellar floor plan, is a 
closed steel tank built for a pressure of 25 pounds per 
square inch and is placed in a pit below the cellar floor. 




^ 



A 












/T-f:^- 



-f^ 



^¥ 



:cjKj! 



bog 




FIG. 53 — DETAIL OF SKIMMING TANK. 



TANK HOUSES 



81 



This tank is used as a receptacle for the grease from the 
skimming basin. When the tank is filled, the valve on the 
receiving line is shut, steam pressure is applied to the tank 
and the skimmings blown up to the inedible rendering tank, 
where they are cooked. 



PILL>3::> OA,8-, 




■ 


' 


h- 




ri 




<1 




a. ^ 




<. 


^ 


O 


J 


' 


^ 


^ 


al 


o 


^5 


h- 





o 


«/^ 


O. c 


■ u 


3 


U- 


O 


O 




Z 


V 


<[ 


i^ 


oi 


ol 


h- 


1- 




' 


^, ^ 



LLLVATION 



TILACI^ ^UPPOD-T^ fe'-O" APAE.T 

HIGH 



PLAN 




FIG. 54 — DETAIL OP TRACKS FOR FEI^TILIZER PRESS. 



A similar arrangement can be installed for the lard 
which is skimmed off from the skimming boxes in the edible 
department. The tank can then be set directly on the cellar 
floor. The skimmings are sent back to the edible render- 
ing tanks to be recooked. 



CHAPTER IX 
SMOKE HOUSES 

Meats are preserved and made more palatable by being 
exposed for a certain length of time to the smoke from 
wood fires. In the olden days the smoke house was a part 
of every large household and hams and bacon were cured 
and smoked much in the same manner as in the modern 
packing house of today. 

The principal change will be found in the method of 
hanging the meat. In the old-style smoke house wooden 
sticks were placed from wall to wall and the meat was hung 
in tiers, one above the other, until the house was filled. 
This method has been discarded for the more convenient 
system of using portable meat trolleys, suspended from 
overhead rails. By extending these rails to the soaking 
vats and to the hanging and packing room the meat can be 
transferred on trolleys from one room to another. 

A further advantage of the trolley system will be found 
in the improved appearance of the meat, since it avoids 
handling by hand, which always makes meat greasy look- 
ing and takes away its bright, attractive coloring. 

Smoke houses are classed among the high fire-risks in 
a packing plant and should be built of fireproof materials 
and isolated from the adjoining buildings as much as pos- 
sible. The entrance to the smoke house alley should be 
through a brick vestibule protected by double fire-doors. 
The alley or corridor into which the smoke houses open 
should have outside light and ventilation and the windows 
should be of fireproof material. All walls should be built 
of brick, laid in good cement mortar, with the joints filled 
solidly with mortar. 



SMOKE HOUSES 



83 



No wall should be less than 12 inches in thickness in 
order to keep the smoke and heat on that side of the wall 
where it properly belongs. An 8-inch wall is often built 
around one-story houses, but the shght saving made in the 
cost is not enough to offset the difficulties resulting from 
smoke and heat escaping through this thin enclosing wall. 

The temperature of the smoke house must be main- 
tained at 110° Fahr. during the smoking time and it is, 
therefore, necessary, in cold chmates, to provide an air 
space between the roof and the ceiling, as a protection 




FIG. 55— PLAN OF SMOKE HOUSE. 

against the cold coming through the roof. When the roof 
construction is of wood, the smoke flues should always be 
supported on the fireproof ceiling bejlow, otherwise the 
woodwork will be exposed to the heat and sparks from the 
fire pit. 

In smoke houses more than three stories in height it 
is necessary to install heating coils to maintain the required 
temperature in the upper stories. 

An improved method of firing smoke houses has lately 
been introduced by the Airoblast Corporation of New York. 



84 



SMOKE HOUSES 



This method is patented and has been successfully tried 
out in Packing House practice. It consists of a gas burner 
in the form of a perforated pipe, which is laid on the firing 
pit floor. By a proper admixture of gas and air heat is pro- 
duced and easily regulated. A metal hood is placed over 



' 370WE CAPS -• 




ms 









FIG. 56 — SECTION A A OF SMOKE HOUSE. 



the burner so as to deflect the flame downward and ignite 
the sawdust on the floor. Air is supplied by a small electric 
blower placed outside of the flring pit and the piping and 
control valves for gas and air are conveniently located near 
the thermometer in the door. 

This method of firing has an advantage over the wood 



SMOKE HOUSES 



85 



fire in the ready control of heat and smoke and the ease 
with which the fires can be started and put out. The 
manufacturers claim that less time is required to properly 
smoke the meats and that the coloring is better and the 
shrinkage less. 




FIG. 57 — SECTION B B OP SMOKE HOUSE. 

Example of Smoke House Construction 

In Figures 55, 56 and 57 is illustrated the construction 
of a two-story smoke house with firing pit in the cellar. 
The entrance is from a fireproof corridor ten feet wide built 
with concrete fioors and roof. 



86 SMOKE HOUSES 

The smoking capacity of this size house is 5400 pounds 
of meat in each story, when three-station trolleys are used. 
This capacity could be increased to 7200 pounds by placing 
the rail nine feet above the floor and using the four-station 
trolley. 




DLUIL OF QG/\T!NQ 



PIG. 58 — DETAIL OF SMOKE HOUSE FLOOR. 

The ceiling and roof over the smoke house are of con- 
crete and the smoke flues of brick. The draft is regulated 
by a sheet-iron damper, which is counterbalanced and 
operated by a chain placed near the door opening on the 
top floor. 



SMOKE HOUSES 



87 



Steel beams support the iron grating used as a floor 
in the smoke house (see Fig. 58). The grating is removable 
and laid in three sections which can be taken out and 
cleaned. 

Another and cheaper type of floor is illustrated by- 
Figure 59. 

This is made of 14 -inch wire-netting with 4 x 4-inch 
mesh and bound on the edges with %-inch steel rods. In 
cheap work the wire floor is made in one section (without 
the edges being bound) and built into the walls with inter- 
mediate I-beam supports at one or two points. 

The construction of smoke house doors is illustrated 
in detail in Figure 60 and the fire pit doors in Figure 61. 



%' BOUND 




FIG. 59 — DETAIL OF WIRE FLOOR IN SMOKE HOUSES. 



The sill for the door should be placed two inches above 
the floor, with an angle-iron curb on the outside for the 
door to close against. A small iron grating is placed in the 
ceiling of the corridor, directly over the door openings to 
the smoke house, so that the smoke, which escapes when 
the doors are opened^ can pass up to the next floor and out 
through a ventilator in the roof. 

The ventilating flues, shown in the brick wall near the 
door, can be built at a small cost and will assist in ventilat- 
ing the corridor. 



88 



SMOKE HOUSES 




5% 3TEEL HINGE 

'/■&" PIN 



FLOOR LINE 



^^^^^^Z 



••SV^-VS^^ ANGLE EH;"' 

PIG. 60— DETAIL, OP DOORS FOR SMOKE HOUSE. 



SMOKE HOUSES 




3tCT10N 



ALL ^NGLE3 
\Vxr''E"x'/4" 



tLtVATlON 



PLAN 




HANDLE 

FIG. 61— DETAIL OF DOORS FOR FIRE PIT. 



90 



SMOKE HOUSES 



Figure 62 shows how the hangers for the smoke house 
are fastened. Two 6-inch channel irons, placed % inch 
apart, are built into the walls and the hangers are put up 
with ^g-inch bolts, placed between the two channels. In 
cheap construction, the hangers are fastened to 6x8-inch 
timbers, but this construction is not recommended, as the 
timber will sooner or later catch on fire. 

The floor in the firing pit can be put down with well 
tamped clay, where the ground is dry and free from surface 
water. In wet soil, it is necessary to lay a watertight con- 



E 



1! I tr CHANNELS 




qj^^Qxfe/eBOLT 



12 CAST IBON 
^ HANQEP 




/B^e'/eTBACfcL 



FIG. 62— DETAIL OF SUPPORT FOR TRACK HANGERS IN SMOKE 

HOUSE. 



Crete fioor, which should be covered with hard-burned 
brick, laid in cement mortar. 

In Figure 63 is illustrated a type of smoke house which 
is often used in wholesale markets and in buildings where 
the space on. the first fioor is too valuable to use for smoke 
houses. The fire pit is placed in the cellar and the smoke 
house is omitted in the first story. 

The smoke from the firing pit is conducted to the fioor 
of the second story smoke house through fines built in the 
wall and extended across the first story ceiling with two 



SMOKE HOUSES 



91 



outlets into the smoke house. The flues should be built 
with, terra cotta lining and the openings regulated by 
dampers which will insure an even distribution of the 
smoke through the outlets. 



StiPFLCDD 




J)MOK,L HOU^L 



IRDN CjCATINO with DAMPLU, 



tl 



ni^L PIT 

' 3' o" 



m 



+= 



l^FLCOa 



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FIG. 63 — FIRE PIT IN CELLAR AND SMOKE HOUSE ON 
SECOND FLOOR. ) 

Smoked meat trolleys of a type frequently used are 
illustrated in Figures 64 and 65. The large size trolley will 
hold 450 pounds of meat and the smaller, about 300 pounds. 
This equipment can be purchased from any of the large 
packing house supply dealers or can be made locally in any 
well equipped machine shop. 



92 



SMOKE HOUSES 




I 



f^OHT VIEW 



OlDl 



3/3 RIVETO 



i 



PL^N 




SEPARATOR 



DETML 



f 



PIG. 64— DETAILS OF SMOKE HOUSE TROLLEY. 



SMOKE HOUSES 



93 



Sausage Smoke Houses 

Sausage smokers are constructed on the same prin- 
ciple as previously described for ham and bacon smoking. 
The walls should be of brick and the floors and roof of 




VUk\l3 



-A PIAN 



FIG. 65 — DETAILS OP SMOKE HOUSE TROLLEY. 

fireproof material. The width of the house is generally- 
made fifty-four inches and the length eight feet or twelve 
feet, so as to accommodate the standard size sausage tree, 
which is forty-six inches wide and forty-six inches long. 



SMOKE HOUSES 



The height of smoke houses w:]\ depend upon whether the 
sausage is to be smoked with a great deal of heat or with 
cold smoke. The single story house with firing pit directly 
below is generally used for the smoking of domestic 
sausage. For summer sausage it is necessary to have 



^ 



5-5.&*CHftNNLL^7 



T^ - 



1, 5/s,2"5AlL^ 



5'e,«E"5AB,- 




\U\\L j 



E- a.sfchWNLLj 



-t - ^ ^^ 



L^—i 1---^ -^ 




4=^Si= 



F^ONT VILW 



JIDL VILW 



H- 



■<-; 



-4^8^ 



3/8 « E" hhVu 



V- 



^/6>^£"bA&,-s 



VLhH 



thT 






ilhi 



'////////////W/A 'yMWMMV/M/////MVJMJW//MA 



\ \% i 



u 



DLTML or 
CLOJJ)t)AlL 



FIG. 66 — DETAIL OF SAUSAGE RACK. 

large houses, several stories in height, in which the sausage 
is kept in cool smoke under carefully regulated tempera- 
tures. The location should be as convenient to the sausage 
kitchen and cook room as the arrangement will permit and 
the overhead rails should be extended from the smoke 
houses to the sausage tables and the cook rooms. 



SMOKE HOUSES 95 

In Figure 66 is illustrated a type of sausage tree in 
general use. It is made to hold a sausage stick forty-four 
inches long and is rigid and economical in its construction. 



CHAPTER X 
STOCK PENS 

Storage pens must be provided in all plants, so as to 
have facilities on the premises for the storage and handling 
of live stock, after it is brought to the plant. Where there 
is ample room, the pens are constructed as a stock yard, 
with open or covered inclosures, and the yard is divided 
into sections, by alleys and drives. An inclined runway is 
built from the yard to the killing-floor and the stock driven 
up as needed. 

Platforms should be constructed along the railroad 
track, and chutes for unloading should be built in front of 
each car door. Stock cars are generally built forty feet 
long; therefore, the chutes should be about forty-two feet 
apart and wide enough to allow for the smaller cars of less 
recent construction. 

Facilities for unloading from wagons should also be 
provided, as well as stock scales and a scale house. 

Stock yards should, preferably, be roofed over, so as 
to protect the stock during bad weather. This is particu- 
larly necessary for sheep and hogs. The modern yards are 
now built of reinforced concrete and paved with brick or 
concrete. 

The Government requires that all hog pens be paved 
and properly drained and that all yards be provided with 
facilities for watering the stock. 

In Figure 67 is illustrated a section through a covered 
stock yard built for the storage of cattle, sheep and hogs. 
The pens are of various sizes and are arranged so that all 
alleys connect with the runway to the killing floor. The 
roof over the alleys is raised above the main roof, and 



PBi-PMiLD OOOFINO 




FIG. 67— SECTION THROUGH STOCK YARDS. 



FIG. 68— SECTION THROUGH STOCK RUN 
WITH DETAILS. 



98 STOCK PENS 

means for light and ventilation is provided by continuous 
monitors. 

In Figure 68 is illustrated, in detail, the construction 
of a runway to the killing floor. The incline of the run 
should be three inches per lineal foot, if the space will 
permit, and should never be more than three and one-half 
inches, except for very short runs. The brick floor, laid 
with three courses of flat bricks, and one course laid on 
edge, will give a secure foothold for the live stock. 

Where the ground space is limited, the stock pens must 
be built in decks, one above the other, from the ground to 
the kilhng floor level. This structure is generally placed 
adjoining or close to the slaughter house and should, there- 
fore, be of sanitary construction and built of such materials 
as will not become a fire-hazard to the adjoining buildings. 
The floors must be waterproof and all parts of the building 
must be thoroughly ventilated and protected from the 
weather. 

Reinforced concrete pens have been built with only a 
slight increase in cost over mill construction and when we 
consider that they are fireproof and can easily be kept in 
a sanitary condition, the additional cost must be looked 
upon as a good investment. 
Storage Capacity of Pens 

The pen room required for holding live stock in yards 
can be figured at 1000 square feet per carload of cattle and 
500 square feet for hogs and sheep. Double-deck hog cars 
require twice this amount of space. This estimate includes 
alleys and drives. 
Cost 

A stock yard built at Sioux Falls, S. D., of a construc- 
tion similar to that shown in Figure 67, including 6-inch 
concrete floors, and complete sewer and water installation, 
cost $41 per 100 square feet. 

Concrete hog pens, 100x78 feet, four stories high, 
erected in Mason City, Iowa, cost six cents per cubic foot, 
complete with fencing, water and sewers. 



CHAPTER XI 
LUMBER IN PACKING HOUSE CONSTRUCTION 

The use of lumber in packing houses has been greatly 
reduced by the introduction of reinforced concrete con- 
struction. There are, however, many instances in which 
lumber will be used, even in fireproof buildings. 

The ease with which track-hangers can be bolted to 
overhead timbers makes wood indispensable in cooler build- 
ings and on killing floors, and as support for machinery 
and equipment it has no equal. 

The higher cost of fireproof buildings will influence 
many owners to use wood in the construction of their 
plants. Another factor, which may have considerable 
weight, is the increased use of automatic sprinklers, which 
greatly reduces the fire-risk and thereby overcomes one of 
the strongest objections which an owner has to wood con- 
struction. 

For the reasons above stated, it may be of general 
interest to know what the conditions are which make lum- 
ber so unsatisfactory for general use in packing house 
constrtiction. 

When wood is exposed alternately to wet and dry con- 
ditions it decays very rapidly, on acco*unt of the growth of 
the lumber destroying fungi, which are forever present 
under humid conditions. Humidity and lack of ventilation 
will increase the growth of fungus, although the species 
which cause dry-rot will thrive, even with a scant water 
supply, and lie dormant for a long time under unfavorable 
conditions for growth. 



100 LUMBER IN PACKING HOUSE CONSTRUCTION 

Rot in wood is popularly supposed to be a chemical 
action similar to the rusting of iron. A closer study of the 
subject has proven that fungus is the cause of rot instead 
of a result of it. The result of the extensive research work 
done by the Bureau of Forestry at Washington, D. C, has 
given us a better understanding of the action of wood under 
various atmospheric conditions. We learn that several 
species of wood-destroying fungi will thrive in high tem- 
peratures while others are destroyed when the temperature 
is low. The result of this, in buildings, can be seen in dry- 
rot and damp-rot. 

In packing plants it is the damp-rot fungi which are 
the more harmful and their effects can be observed wher- 
ever there is moisture and lack of ventilation. The rapid 
rotting out of posts immediately below the floor-line, and 
instances where the ends of girders and joists have decayed 
in the course of a few years, are only of too frequent 
occurrence. 

These conditions are particularly noticeable around 
slaughter houses, refineries and tank houses, where steam 
and water keep the wood saturated to a much larger extent 
than in other parts of the plant. Certain acids, always 
present in the air in these buildings, also seem to favor the 
growth of fungi. Frequently, the wood close to the outlet 
of a hot water pipe, or immediately above a cooking-vat, 
will rot out long before the surrounding wood shows any 
signs of decay. This can be explained by the fact that the 
air in these places is so saturated with moisture that the 
wood becomes infected by an excessive growth of fungus. 

In cellars where there is lack of ventilation, there is a 
noticeable decay of all wood. The author knows of a build- 
ing where the pine planks in a cellar ceiling rotted out after 
five years. In reconstructing the cellar, new window open- 
ings were placed in both sidewalls and kept open, for venti- 
lation, most of the time. After three years of service there 
\vas no noticeable indication of rot in any part of the 
ceiling. 



LUMBER IN PACKING HOUSE CONSTRUCTION 101 

In his book on "Dry-Rot in Factory Timbers," Mr, 
P. J. Hoxie recommends the heating of buildings as a means 
of arresting the growth of fungi. Heating and drying, with 
the consequent change in the humidity of the air, will stop 
the growth of certain fungi, which are destroyed when the 
temperature is maintained at 115° Fahr. for an hour or 
more. In practical application, the heating in a packing 
house could be done by putting steam on in the heating 
coils over Saturday and Sunday, during the summer 
months w^hen the outside temperature is high. 

Painting the woodwork after it is erected is of value, 
when the wood is thoroughly dry and sound before the 
paint is applied. Only oil or waterproof paints should be 
used and these should be applied in two or more heavy 
coats. Cold-water paints are useless, under these condi- 
tions, as they have no resistance to moisture. 

Lumber Suitable in Packing Houses 

Since the process of manufacture in packing houses 
will remain detrimental to the life of wood, it becomes 
necessary to select those varieties of timber which offer 
the most resistance to the attacks of fungi. We specify 
the best of materials for steel and concrete construction 
and pay the market price without further comment, but 
with lumber we are inclined to substitute the cheaper 
grades and pay double for it in the end, by having to replace 
it after a comparatively short time. 

This policy may be all right where the first cost is the 
only factor to be considered, but should not be followed 
where good and permanent construction is desired. 

A great deal of inferior lumber) is used in packing 
plants on account of ignorance as to the requirements. 
Irresponsible contractors may take advantage of the own- 
er's inexperience with the best grades of lumber, and if 
they should happen to be found out, will generally give the 
excuse that they were unable to get the grade specified at 
the mill without having to wait a long time for it. Incom- 
plete specifications are also the cause of much inferior lum- 



102 LUMBER IN PACKING HOUSE CONSTRUCTION 

ber being used, and it requires a good knowledge of the 
different grading rules to properly describe the exact 
quality which is desired. When the lumber arrives on the 
job it should be carefully inspected by someone who under- 
stands what has been specified and who is competent to 
pass upon the quality of the lumber which has been deliv- 
ered. Any piece which is not up to specifications should 
be marked and rejected. 

It is a short-sighted policy to buy anything but the 
very best grades of long leaf yellow pine or Oregon fir. 
White pine, which was formerly used in packing plants, 
and with excellent results, is now too expensive for any- 
thing but thin fiooring and insulation work. From the 
experience we have had in the past, we know that only the 
highly resinous and close grained woods will give satis- 
faction, and even their usefulness, in a packing plant, is 
comparatively limited. 

Yellow pine is a very hard, close grained wood, is 
strong and heavily impregnated with rosin and wood oil. 
These preservatives act as a filler to keep moisture out of 
the pores of the wood and preserve it from decay. 

The Oregon fir, or pine, is a wood which closely resem- 
bles the yellow pine and is about nine-tenths as strong as 
the best long leaf pine. It is lighter in weight and less 
resinous and is therefore not so well suited for packing 
house work as the better grades of pine. 

This quality of the timber is rated according to whether 
it contains heartwood or sapwood. The heartwood is more 
resistant to decay than the softer and less resinous sap- 
wood and should therefore be specified. 
Varieties of Southern Pine 

Southern pine is generally known as "Long Leaf" and 
"Short Leaf" yellow pine. The long leaf is a heavy, res- 
inous and fine-grained wood which possesses great struc- 
tural strength and durability. It grows in the states of 
Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Florida, Louisiana and 
Texas. 

The "Short Leaf" yellow pine is lighter in weight than 



LUMBER IN PACKING HOUSE CONSTRUCTION 103 

the Long Leaf, somewhat less resinous, coarse-grained, 
and with a large percentage of sapwood. It grows prin- 
cipally in North Carolina and Arkansas, but is also found 
in the states mentioned above, when soil conditions favor 
its growth. 

When the trees of the two varieties are cut up into 
lumber, it is often very difficult to distinguish between 
the better grades of Short Leaf and the inferior grades of 
Long Leaf, and, unless the quality of lumber is clearly 
specified, the mills will generally send a mixed shipment 
of both varieties. 

The scarcity of the best grades of long leaf lumber 
makes it expensive and difficult to buy. European buyers, 
who consider quality above price, are large purchasers of 
Long Leaf yellow pine and there are lumber mills in the 
South which never quote or ship to domestic markets. 
Their output is cut and graded entirely for foreign demand. 
Why Resinous Wood Should Be Used 

The present system of grading and selection under 
which yellow pine is being sold does not give sufficient 
guaranty that the lumber will be of the quality called for 
by the specifications of the purchaser. 

The classification of timber is a question of strength 
and durability, and the percentage of rosin is generally con- 
sidered as the most reliable index of durability for the 
Southern pine. There is generally a wide variation in the 
rosin content between the top-end and the butt-end of a 
tree, ajid the timber cut from one tree will, therefore, be 
of various grades in quality. It may all show the required 
percentage of heartwood, but the resi^stance to decay will 
differ in proportion to the rosin contents when the lumber 
is used in buildings where there is much dampness. 

Contrary to common belief, heartwood without rosin 
is not immune from rapid decay. The author quotes the 
following interesting observation by Mr. Hoxie: "The lim- 
iting amount of rosin just sufficient to stop the growth of 
fungus is in the neighborhood of three per cent. The 



104 LUMBER IN PACKING HOUSE CONSTRUCTION 

limiting power of rosin is undoubtedly not absolute, but 
varies with the variety of fungus and time of exposure. It 
is, therefore, safe to assume that a mill-beam should have 
four to five per cent of rosin throughout to successfully 
withstand fungus by its own power of resistance, under 
ordinary conditions of dampness." 

In packing houses where the dampness is excessive 
and far above the ordinary conditions found in factory 
buildings, the lumber would need to be of an even higher 
quality. 

Specifications for Structural Timber 

Where the purchaser is willing to pay the price, he can 
undoubtedly obtain the best grade of yellow pine timber if 
he makes his requirements known to the lumber dealers. 

The specifications of the American Society for Testing 
Materials are in part as follows: "All timber, except as 
noted, shall be of long leaf yellow pine, sawed to standard 
size, square-edged and straight; shall be close-grained and 
free from defects such as injurious ring-shakes and cross- 
grain, unsound or loose knots, knots in groups, decay or 
other defects which will impair its strength." 

To the above specification should be added, that all 
square timber must show 95 per cent heart on all four 
sides; all rectangular timber must show 95 per cent heart 
on the girth, throughout the length of the piece; provided, 
however, that if the maximum amount of sap is shown on 
either narrow face of the stringer, the depth of the sap shall 
nowhere exceed one-half inch; knots shall not exceed four 
inches in their largest diameter. 

The heartwood must show a sharp contrast in color 
between the springwood and the summerwood and show 
not less than eight growth-rings per inch, measured over 
the third, fourth and fifth inches on a radial line from pith 
to circumference. The percentage of rosin shall be not less 
than five per cent in any part of the timber, and the weight 
of all timbers shall not be less than forty-six pounds per 
cubic foot. 



LUMBER IN PACKING HOUSE CONSTRUCTION 105 

Wood Preservatives — Chemical Treatment 

The treatment of wood with preservatives, to prevent 
its rapid destruction, has been in use for some time. Here- 
tofore, it has principally been confined to railroad ties, pav- 
ing blocks and telegraph poles, but more attention is now 
being paid to its use for factory timbers. 

The scarcity and high cost of the better grades of pine 
timber necessitates the use of the less durable, ordinary 
quality of pine, and we know that this class of timber must 
be replaced in a packing house, after six to ten years of 
service, if not before, unless some means of increasing its 
durability be employed. 

The life of railroad ties is more than doubled by being 
treated with creosote. With factory timber there is as yet 
not sufRcient experience to prove how great an increase in 
its durability will result by treatment with preservatives. 
The fungus destroying power of various antiseptics has 
been experimented with under conditions of actual service 
which promise to give very satisfactory results. The coal- 
tar compound used for treating railroad ties and poles is 
not suited for interior work on account of the disagreeable 
odor and increased fire hazard. Liquid oils or varnishes do 
not prevent fungus from destroying wood if the conditions 
of humidity are favorable and their use is strongly objected 
to by the fire underwriters. 

At the convention of the American Wood Preservation 
Society, Mr. F. J. Hoxie read a paper on "Treated Timber 
for Factory Construction" and recommended therein the 
use of -the "Mercury" or "Kyanizing" process, which is 
extensively used in some countries in Europe with excellent 
results. The method of treatment employed, according to 
Mr. Hoxie, is to soak the material in a one per cent solu- 
tion of corrosive sublimate dissolved in water, using one 
pound of the sublimate to 12 gallons of water. 

This solution should be mixed in a wooden or concrete 
vat, built on the ground, and the lumber allowed to soak 
therein for a period of from three to seven days, depending 
upon the size of the timber. 



106 LUMBER IN PACKING HOUSE CONSTRUCTION 

The solution attacks iron or other metals; therefore it 
is not practicable to use it in metal tanks. This process is 
recommended on account of fifty years of successful expe- 
rience, and the ease of applying it as well as its economy. 

The cost of treating has averaged about three dollars 
per 1000 board-measure feet of lumber. 

Care must be used in handling the corrosive sublimate, 
as it is poisonous if taken internally. 



CHAPTER XII 
SANITATION, PLUMBING AND DRAINAGE 

The installation of the plumbing fixtures, drainage and 
sewer systems in packing plants must be subject to the 
requirements of the local Health Department. 

In Government inspected plants the requirements of 
the Bureau of Animal Industry must also be complied with. 
Their requirements are, "that in compartments where food 
products are prepared, handled or stored, all plumbing 
should be so installed that the same standard of sanitation 
will be obtained as that required in dwellings erected to 
conform with modern methods of plumbing installation." 
Toilet Rooms 

The best arrangement of toilet facilities in moderate 
sized plants is to provide a central toilet station for the 
men. This should be located where it is easily accessible 
from all parts of the plant and convenient to the dressing 
room. The accommodations should include one water 
closet for each 20 employees, large trough urinals and 
wash-basins. Where three or more closets are necessary, 
the range closet will be found the most satisfactory, as it 
is easily kept clean and in repair. Each seat should be par- 
titioned off, either with slate or heavy galvanized iron, 
placed 12 inches above the floor. The closets should have 
continuous flushing service and be of sufficient depth to 
allow for an ample body of water in the' trough at all times. 
The floor of the toilet room should be of impervious mate- 
rial and properly drained. The walls and partitions should 
be plastered for at least five feet above the floor line and 
preferably painted in a light color. Good ventilation and 
natural light is essential and the windows should be kept 
open at all times of the year. 



108 SANITATION, PLUMBING AND DRAINAGE 

With a central toilet station, it will be expedient, in 
large plants, to provide urinal stalls and wash-basins con- 
venient to departments which employ a large number of 
men. These accommodations must be located in rooms 
with outside light and ventilation and where the sanitary 
conditions are faultless. Toilet rooms for women should 
have one closet for each 15 employees, and individual, auto- 
matic features should be installed. All toilet fixtures must 
be separately trapped by an approved water-seal trap, 
placed as close to the fixture as possible. The trap should 
be vented at its highest point and the vent-pipes carried 
above the roof. All soil pipes should be of extra heavy 
cast-iron, with joints caulked with lead. Vent and waste 
pipes can be of galvanized wrought iron with screwed 
joints. The fixtures should be of the heaviest pattern, 
either of earthenware or enameled cast-iron and should be 
selected for their sanitary and durable qualities. 

The Government requires that when the toilet opens 
directly into a room where edible products are prepared or 
stored, the entrance must be through a vestibule in which 
there is outside light and ventilation. The door must be 
fitted with a self-closing attachment which will keep it 
closed. 
Floor Drains 

Packing house fioors are drained by gutters or cast- 
iron floor drains. Gutters are used where there is much 
water on the floor and where a great number of floor drains 
would not be desirable. They should be made continuous 
across the room and stop within 12 or 16 feet of the walls, 
in order to drain all water away from the wall-lines. 

Gutters 48 feet in length or over should have two drain 
outlets four inches in diameter. For short gutters, one 
4-inch outlet will suffice. The outlets should be located 
near the columns, so as to shorten the connection with the 
waste-stack. 

All outlets must be trapped with a cast-iron water- 
sealed trap and connected to a waste-stack which is vented 
through the roof. The best type of trap for a floor drain 



SANITATION, PLUMBING AND DRAINAGE 



109 



is the "P" trap shown in Figure 69. It should be made 
with a hand hole and brass screw for cleaning out. 

The Bureau of Animal Industry recommends that each 
outlet be vented from the crown of the trap. This would 
require a separate vent-stack alongside the waste-stack, 
where the drains on more than one floor are connected into 
one stack. The Bureau has not enforced this rule, except 
where the traps are subject to siphonic action. It is suffi- 
cient to extend the waste-pipe in full size from the top 
floor up through the roof. 




FIG. 69 — "P" TRAP. 



Floor drains are generally used in beef and hog cool- 
ers where the floor is covered with saw-dust or mill-shav- 
ings, which absorb the drippings from the meat. These 
floors are not washed down as frequently as manufactur- 
ing floors, therefore drains can be used to advantage and 
installed at less expense than continuous gutters. 

Gutters and drains should not be placed farther apart 
than 32 feet in packing house floors. This will generally 
mean that the gutters will be built at every other row of 
posts. 

The slope of the floor should not be less than one- 
fourth of an inch to the foot. Slaughter house floors are 
often given a pitch of flve-eighths of an inch. 

Defective drainage is frequently caused by the fact 
that the foundations of the walls will settle proportionally 
more than the inside column foundations. That part of 
the floor which is supported by the wall, will naturally set- 
tle with the wall, causing imperfect drainage to the gutters= 
The author, therefore, recommends that the high-point of 



110 SANITATION, PLUMBING AND DRAINAGE 

the floor along the side-walls, be raised one inch more than 
will be needed for the inside floor. 

The details of floor gutters are illustrated and described 
in Chapter XX. 

Cast-iron drains with Bell trap, are frequently used 
instead of gutters. They should be of heavy cast-iron, with 
removable top and strainer. Bell traps are not recom- 
mended for use except when the drain-pipe is also trapped 
by a "P" trap. Unless this is done, the fixtures would be 
without a trap, if the strainer and bell was removed, and as 
these are frequently broken in cleaning out the cess-pool, 
there should be an additional protection to satisfy the san- 
itary requirements. 

All floor drains which empty into the grease catch basin 
should be placed so that the outlet of the drains is sub- 
merged in water. This is done to prevent the odors from 
the catch basin from contaminating the drainage system. 

Catch basins should be located outside the buildings, 
when the arrangement will permit. In no case should they 
be placed inside of a room in which edible products are 
handled. 
Dressing Rooms 

Plants under Government inspection must provide ade- 
quate dressing room for the employees, in which wearing 
apparel can be hung. The room must be thoroughly ven- 
tilated and lighted by windows or sky-fights. 

The floor should be waterproof and drained, so that it 
can be cleaned and washed down with a hose. All walls 
should be plastered or painted with oil paint and heating 
coils should be installed so that the working clothes can be 
dried over night. The Government recommends that where 
lockers are provided for the clothing, these should be ar- 
ranged in separate compartments; one for street clothes 
and the other for working clothes. All lockers should be 
well ventilated and preferably made of metal. 

In connection with the dressing room, there should be 
installed a shower-bath for every fifteen employees. The 
showers will add greatly to the general cleanliness and com- 



SANITATION, PLUMBING AND DRAINAGE 111 

fort of the employees and can be installed at a slight 
expense. 

A substantial, inexpensive shower can be made with 
No. 18 galvanized iron partitions, fastened to 2x4-inch up- 
rights and painted with two coats of enameled paint. The 
floor is covered with the same material and has a drain out- 
let in the centre. 
Catch Basins 

In packing houses, catch basins are used as storage 
reservoirs for the waste water which contains particles of 
fat, either in solid or suspended state. This water comes 
from the manufacturing and killing floors, curing vats and 
tanks, and from any other source where there is a possibil- 
ity of saving any fat. This is skimmed off the surface of 
the water and sent to the inedible rendering tanks. The 
water from the catch basin is then run off into the sewer, 
the flow of the water is continuous and the same amount 
which enters the basin at one end is discharged into the 
sewer at the opposite end. 

The principle of construction is to provide room for 
the storage of a sufficient body of water to allow all sus- 
pended particles of fat to rise to the surface before the 
water reaches the outlet to the sewer. 

Since the specific gravity of fat is so much less than 
water, it will quickly rise to the surface unless it is pre- 
vented from doing so by currents and whirlpools, created 
by faulty construction or by the insufficient size of the basin. 

A common fault in many catch basins lies in the many 
partitions put in with alternating over and underflows. 
These divide the space into many small compartments in 
which there is always too much of a clurrent for effective 
results. These currents flow alternately in opposite direc- 
tions. With an underflow, the tendency is to give a down- 
ward motion to the water and this, in passing under the 
partition, will create an upward current in the next com- 
partment. This agitation interferes with the operation of 
the laws of gravitation and prevents a complete separa- 
tion of the lighter and heavier substances. 



112 SANITATION, PLUMBING AND DRAINAGE 

Another common fault is the tendency to build the 
basin too narrow and at the same time, too shallow. It 
then acts merely as an open drain, with little or no possi- 
bility of retaining and skimming off the fat. 

An effective catch basin should be of sufficient size to 
handle the waste water without too rapid a flow to the 
sewer outlet. If the approximate amount of water to be 
diverted to the basin is known, the size can be calculated on 
the basis of 10 gallons of water per cubic foot of basin. 
Thus, if the waste-water in a plant equals 200,000 gallons 

every 24 hours, the basin should be ^^M^ = 833 cubic 

10x24 

feet capacity. With a 3-foot depth of water and a basin 

four feet wide, the length would need to be 70 feet. 

In the construction of such a basin it will be found 
more economical to make it in two lengths, open at one 
end, and with a skimming platform in the centre, as shown 
in the cellar plan of the packing, plants, illustrated in pre- 
vious chapters. 

The body of the water in the basin should not be too 
deep, from three to four feet is sufficient. Deep basins not 
only increase the distance which the fat must travel to 
reach the surface but they also unnecessarily increase the 
cost of construction. When the cellar drainage discharges 
into the catch basin, the water in the basin must stand at 
the same level as that of the lowest drain entering the 
basin. In Figure 70 is shown the construction of a catch 
basin for a small packing plant. The outside walls are 12 
inches thick at the top and 18 inches at the bottom and are 
reinforced with ^-inch steel rods. The skimming plat- 
form is in the middle between the two basins and is reached 
from the cellar of the adjoining tank house. 

When the basin is skimmed off, the grease is dumped 
into the open trough in the platform-floor through which 
it runs to the blow tank. When this is filled, the contents 
are blown, by steam, up to the rendering tanks. 

The partitions are placed so that there is an overfiow 
over the first one which permits all solid matter to be held 



SANITATION, PLUMBING AND DRAINAGE 



113 



back in the first compartment and this is made the entire 
length, on one side of the basin. The second and third par- 
titions are each set eight inches above the floor, thus creat- 
ing an underflow which holds back all floating fat. The 
fourth and last partition is an overflow and is set at the same 
level as the lowest drain entering the basin. All drains 




FIG. 70 — PLAN AND SECTION OF CATCH BASIN. 

\ 

should be provided with an elbow at the entrance to the 
basin, so that the water will be discharged downward, below 
the surface. This will provide a waterseal for the drain- 
pipes and prevent the odors of the basin from contaminat- 
ing the drainage system. Similarly, the outlet pipe should 
be turned down one foot below the water level, so as not 
to carry off any of the floating grease. An outlet should be 



114 SANITATION, PLUMBING AND DRAINAGE 

provided to drain the basin where the main sewer is of a 
sufficient depth. Since the basin must be cleaned regularly, 
this sewer connection will avoid the necessity of pumping 
out the water. 



CHAPTER XIII 
COMMERCIAL COLD STORAGE BUILDINGS 

Introduction 

The introduction of mechanical refrigeration has made 
possible the present development of the cold storage indus- 
try as a public utility in the preservation of food products. 
It has opened up a new field for an industry, which is des- 
tined to become of more and more importance as long as 
man must eat. 

The preservation of food by means of cold storage 
is of comparatively recent origin, when we consider that 
man has congregated in large cities as far back as history 
records, and in so doing must have collected and stored 
foods in quantities above his immediate and daily require- 
ments. 

The benefit to be derived by having cold storage facil- 
ities for the preservation of foods must have been brought 
home to mankind about the time that the countries to the 
North became inhabited, and man lived the year round in 
a climate which provided hin:^ with cold storage tempera- 
ture for at least a part of the year. 

We must assume that he early wished to prolong this 
period, of food preservation beyond the expiration of its 
natural days, for the original man-made cold storage house 
is of ancient origin. It was devised by making a dugout in 
the North side of a hill and filling the cavity with ice from 
a nearby lake or river. Meats and fish could thus be pre- 
served for home consumption by being placed in direct con- 
tact with the refrigerating medium. 

We know that this type of cold storage proved a suc- 
cess by the fact that it is still in use in the localities where 
it originated. 



116 COMMERCIAL COLD STORAGE BUILDINGS 

The improvements which have since been made in the 
construction of buildings refrigerated by natural ice have 
been many and varied, and always more or less satisfactory, 
generally the latter. 

When the refrigerating machine was developed to be 
of commercial value there was an immediate and rapid 
growth of cold storage warehouses, both for public and 
private use. 

This development began shortly before 1890 and today 
we find buildings of this kind fifteen stories high, where 
every floor is being utilized for commercial cold storage, 
with temperatures ranging from 15° Fahr. below zero to 
30° and 40° Fahr. above. 

The ease with which these various temperatures can 
be maintained in properly constructed and insulated build- 
ings, has materially reduced the cost of refrigerated space 
and caused an increased demand for cold storage room. 

Advantages of Cold Storage 

The producer and commission merchant have been 
quick to realize the advantages of placing all kinds of per- 
ishable products in cold storage. Without this means of 
preservation, many commodities which are raised in sea- 
son, must be placed on the market and disposed of at the 
prevailing low prices and at a time when the market is gen- 
erally overstocked. 

The return to the producer is correspondingly less, 
and often an anticipated and well deserved profit will prove 
to be a loss. This naturally discourages growers from a 
continued production of many staple necessities. 

With cold storage space available at reasonable rates, 
the producer and commission merchant alike are in posi- 
tion to relieve the market of an over-supply of products. 
The consumer can be supplied according to the demand, 
and a market is created the year around for goods which 
heretofore were available only in the immediate seasons 
in which they were produced. 

Cold storage has made it possible to carry the surplus 
production of fruits, vegetables and produce during the 



COMMERCIAL COLD STORAGE BUILDINGS 



117 



entire period of natural scarcity and has enabled the pro- 
ducer to raise these products in larger quantities than here- 
tofore was possible and dispose of same at profitable prices, 
thus adding to the yearly quantity of food-production and 
general prosperity. 

It may be interesting to know the extent to which cold 
storage temperatures are used in the preservation of com- 
mercial products. The following list of articles, stored in 
one public cold storage warehouse in Boston, was filed, for 
record, during the public hearings before the United States 
Senate Committee on Manufactures: 



Anchovies 
Apples 
Apricots 
Apple Waste 
Bananas 
Berries 
Beans 
Bulbs 

Brussels Sprouts 
Butter 
Beer 

Buckwheat Flour 
Crabs 
Caviar 

Citron • 

Cheese 
Cereals 

Condensed Milk 
Confectionery- 
Cider 
Chestnuts 
Cherries 
Candied Fruits 
Cranberries 
Currants 
Carrots, 
Canned Goods 
Cream 
Cabbages 
Cauliflower 
Clams 
Cucumbers 
Dates 
Dried Fish 
Dried Meats 
Eggs 

Egg Plant 
Evaporated Peaches 
Flour 



Fruit Juices 

Furs 

Ferns 

Fish for Bait 

Figs 

Frozen Fish 

Game 

Gutta Percha 

Grapes 

Grape Fruit 

Hams 

Holly 

Hops 

Horse Radish 

Honey 

Herbs 

Jellies 

Lettuce 

Leeks 

Leather 

Lobsters 

Lard \ 

Laurel Leaves 

Lemons 

Maple Syrup 

Meat, Fresh 

Maple Sugar 

Melons 

Macaroni 

Mushrooms 

Nuts 

Oysters 

Oranges 

Onions 

Oleomargerine 

Oils 

Olive Oil 

Olives 

Poultry 



Preserves 

Peanuts 

Pickled Fish 

Pineapples 

Pickled Nuts 

Pears 

Prunes 

Potatoes 

Parsnips 

Pickles 

Parsley 

Peas 

Provisions 

Plants 

Peaches 

Peppers 

Radishes 

Raisins 

Rice 

Rhubarb 

Spinach 

Squash 

Skins 

Sauerkraut 

String Beans 

Sponges 

Salad Dressing 

Sausage Casings 

Smilax Leaves 

Sweet Breads 

Smoked Meats 

Scallops 

Smoked Fish 

Syrups 

Shallots 

Turnips 

Wines 

Woolens 

Yarn 



118 COMMERCIAL COLD STORAGE BUILDINGS 

The success of the cold storage industry has been due 
to the fact that it has proven equally beneficial to the pro- 
ducer and consumer and eliminated an unnecessary waste 
of valuable food products. It can truthfully be said that 
the cold storage industry serves as a balance wheel between 
supply and demand. 
Cold Storage Subsidies 

It may be of general interest to know that the Canadian 
Government, in 1907, passed the Cold Storage Act, which 
provides for the payment of subsidies to public cold stor- 
age warehouses, under certain stipulated conditions, to the 
extent of 30% of the cost of such plants. 

The report of the Dairy and Cold Storage Commis- 
sioner for the year 1914 shows that 30 plants have been 
erected in Canada, under contract for subsidies, since this 
act was passed and that four new plants were then under 
construction. The Commissioner's report contains the fol- 
lowing interesting comment upon this subject: "The Cold 
Storage Act has encouraged the erection of small cold 
stores at country points. In this way, storage facilities are 
provided as near as possible to the point of production, and 
the goods are placed in cold storage with the least pos- 
sible loss of time or chance of deterioration. These local 
warehouses tend to prevent the accumulation of large 
quantities of perishable produce in the main centres of dis- 
tribution, and the writer believes that there is no surer or 
more satisfactory way of providing against a manipulation 
of prices by an unfair use of the cold storage industry in 
holding perishable foods of seasonal production. 

"The main advantage, however, in having local cold 
storage warehouses at points of production is that such a 
plan enables the producer or dealer to place his perishable 
goods in safe keeping with the least possible delay. They 
can be transported to consuming centres at a more favor- 
able season of the year, or in any case in large enough 
quantities to permit of carload shipments and the use of 
refrigerator cars. The movement of produce, from the 
producer of small lots to dealers or customers at distant 



COMMERCIAL COLD STORAGE BUILDINGS 119 

points, must be carried out in many cases in less-than-car- 
load-lots and, therefore, without the protection afforded by 
the iced car. 

"The prejudice which exists in some quarters against 
cold stored foods has its root very largely in the fact that 
these foods are often out of condition before they reach 
the warehouse. The local cold storage helps to prevent 
such conditions from arising. 

"Since the passing of the Act in 1907, thirty public cold 
storage warehouses have been erected and received the 
subsidy, with a total refrigerated space of nearly 5,000,000 
cubic feet, practically doubling the refrigerated space for 
public use which was then available." 
Location and Shipping Facilities 

Commercial cold storage plants are classed as Pub- 
lic Utilities and should be located where they are most con- 
venient to the trade. This includes the country producer 
and shipper, as well as the wholesale and commission mer- 
chants in the city. 

A suitable location must provide ample railroad facil- 
ities for the handling of products shipped in carload lots 
and should be within a short haul of the wholesale distribut- 
ing centres for cold storage products. 

A site of this kind in our big cities can now be secured 
only by paying high prices for the land and may lead to 
the selection of a less advantageous location. The most 
successful cold storage warehouses are those which have 
private switch tracks where a great number of railroad cars 
can be received and unloaded at one time. How this is 
arranged for in some of the plants now in operation is 
illustrated in Chapter XIV. ^ 

In the Merchants Cold Storage and Warehouse Co.'s 
plant in Chicago, Chapter XIV, the railroad tracks were 
placed inside of the building with platforms alongside of 
each track. An additional track was provided for the south 
end of the building so that nine cars can be handled at 
one time on this property. 

A better arrangement would have been to run double 



120 COMMERCIAL COLD STORAGE BUILDINGS 

switch-tracks along the rear of the building, but the loca- 
tion of the connecting railroads was such that this plan 
had to be abandoned. 

It is safe to state that no large cold storage building 
was ever built with sufficient trackage for railroad cars. 
With this in mind the arrangement of a new plant should 
provide all track facilities which conveniently can be 
placed on the property. Two sidings are often placed 
alongside the building and the cars on the outside track 
are then unloaded by passing through the cars nearest to 
the building. This saves time in switching the cars in and 
out and reduces the labor cost of handling big shipments. 

Large consignments of cold storage commodities are 
shipped in from outside points and stored in warehouses 
until such time as they will be re-shipped to other markets. 
If these goods are handled by a house which is without 
railroad facilities, it would be necessary to haul the ship- 
ment by team from the nearest railroad yard to the cold 
storage house and back again, and the cost of handling 
must be taken out of the storage fee. 

The financial success of a public cold storage ware- 
house is so dependent upon adequate railroad facilities that 
too much attention can scarcely be paid to this feature. 
As an illustration of this, it can be stated that in Chicago 
there are only three of the fifteen large public cold storage 
buildings which are without railroad connection adjoining 
their property. 

Facilities for the handling of local goods by teaming 
must be arranged for. 

Many cities permit the loading of wagons across the 
sidewalk and this saves valuable space within the building. 
Where this cannot be done, a team loading-court with ship- 
ping platform must be provided for on the property, so 
as not to interfere with traffic on the street. 

A convenient and practical arrangement for a loading- 
court is to omit that part of the first floor adjacent to the 
street and build the second floor of the building out over 
the court. This will require a space 30 feet deep, if the 



COMMERCIAL COLD STORAGE BUILDINGS 121 

horse and wagon are to be kept inside of the sidewalk hne. 

The operation of the power and refrigerating plant in 
a cold storage building requires a large amount of coal 
daily and the plant should be arranged so that the coal 
can be unloaded in front of the boiler room. 

The water supply for the ammonia condensers must 
be considered. This is a large expense item in the operat- 
ing cost unless a cheap supply of water is available. Most 
plants install their own deep water well, even at the expense 
of going down 1,500 to 2,000 feet for water. The cost of 
such installation and the pumping of the water up to the 
condensers should be carefully considered for comparison 
with the rates given on city water. 

The temperature of well water in the summertime com- 
pared with that of other water supplies, should have con- 
sideration before the water question is decided upon, as 
the amount required for the condensers depends largely 
upon the temperature of the water when it flows over the 
pipes. Some advantage may be gained from the installa- 
tion of suitable water cooling towers and this factor should 
be considered. 

The advantages of a favorable location for a new cold 
storage enterprise, which must enter into competition with 
those already established, need not be further commented 
upon. 

CONSTRUCTION FEATURES 

Fire-Proof Construction 

Modern cold storage warehouses have been built of 
fire-proof construction, with a few exceptions. The per- 
manence of this class of construction, with low charges for 
depreciation, reduced cost of maintenance, better sanitary 
conditions and the, practical elimination of vermin, are 
strong arguments in its favor. 

The low insurance rates which can be secured on the 
commodities stored in a fireproof warehouse, will attract 
business to this class of buildings. 



122 COMMERCIAL COLD STORAGE BUILDINGS 

High land values in large cities require buildings with 
great storage capacity, in order to earn interest on the cap- 
ital invested, and this will necessitate the erection of high 
buildings of fireproof construction. 

The difference in cost between slow-burning and fire- 
proof construction is not sufficient to offset the many- 
advantages which a strictly fireproof warehouse will have 
over any other class of construction. 

These facts should be considered and the cost of 
insurance, maintenance, and depreciation on the various 
types of buildings should be figured and compared with 
the first cost of construction, before a final decision is made. 
Mill Construction 

Where the cost of construction must be kept down or 
in localities where lumber is plentiful and cheap and large 
size timbers are available for mill constructed buildings, a 
considerable saving can be made by using this type of 
construction. 

The term "mill construction" means a slow burning 
building with incombustible walls and roof covering and 
wherein the posts are not less than 10x10 inches and girders 
and joists have a sectional area of not less than 72 square 
inches. The floors must be at least 31/2 inches thick, and 
the roof boards 2% inches. All structural iron or steel 
must be covered with two inches of fireproof material and 
inside partition built of 2-inch lumber or of some satisfac- 
tory fireproof material. 

In order to get the lowest insurance rates on mill con- 
struction buildings, they must be constructed strictly ac- 
cording to the recommendations of the National Board of 
Fire Underwriters. Their principal recommendations are 
that buildings of large areas must be divided into units by 
fire walls and communication between buildings must be 
through fireproof vestibules, with double fire doors on all 
openings. Stairs and elevators must be located in such 
vestibules, and standpipes with hose connections provided 
for each floor. 

When automatic sprinklers are installed in a carefully 



COMMERCIAL COLD STORAGE BUILDINGS 123 

designed mill building, the insurance rates will generally 
be lower than in a fireproof building, which is not sprinkled. 
On account of the low temperatures maintained in cold 
storage rooms, it will be necessary to install the sprinklers 
by what is termed the "Dry System" in which the water is 
drained from the pipes and held back by a dry valve at 
a point outside the building. 

This type of installation is more expensive but equally 
effective to the ordinary "wet system" where the water is 
carried in the sprinkler pipes under pressure at all times. 
Sprinkler installations in cold storage rooms are not in high 
favor among the warehouse men. The pipes interfere with 
the refrigerating coils, particularly in freezer rooms and 
where the sprinklers must be placed below the coils there 
is considerable loss of storage space. Sprinkler heads are 
easily damaged and if a careless workman accidently opens 
one of the heads when piling goods, this may result in 
serious loss on account of the room being flooded and the 
goods damaged by water. For the reasons above stated, it 
will require a very substantial reduction in the insurance 
rate to make it profitable to install sprinklers in a cold stor- 
age building. 

Ordinary Construction 

In this chapter the subject of the construction of cold 
storage warehouses has been confined, so far, to fireproof 
and slow-burning types of buildings. Those who do not 
regard good construction as the one essential of modern 
buildings, and wish to build at the least expense, will resort 
to the 'ordinary wood construction with small sized posts 
and girders and with floor joists, spaced close together and 
covered with one or two thicknesses of flooring. One of the 
greatest defects in this type of building, and one which 
should be closely guarded against, is to support the floor 
construction on stud partitions instead of on girders and 
posts. The heavy loads placed on warehouse floors and the 
vibrations from frequent shifting of commodities held in 
storage will in time have the tendency to spring the stud- 
ding and cause the floors to sag. Partitions of this kind can 



124 COMMERCIAL COLD STORAGE BUILDINGS 

not be moved if changes in the interior arrangement of 
the building are desired. In case of fire, they offer Httle 
resistance to the flames and when partly burned, they will 
cause the floors to collapse. 

With heavy timber construction, the supports will often 
stand up under fire until this can be extinguished and 
much damage avoided to that part of the building not 
directly affected by the fiames. For this same reason, un- 
protected steel columns or girders should not be substi- 
tuted for heavy timber, as they will not resist fire nearly 
as well as large, solid timbers. 
The Use of Reinforced Concrete for Cold Storage Buildings 

In fireproof construction, reinforced concrete seems to 
be best adapted to cold storage buildings, where the height 
does not exceed ten stories. Steel constructed buildings of 
the same height will be more expensive without adding to 
the life or efficiency of the plant. The difference in cost 
between structural steel and reinforced concrete buildings 
is from 10 to 20 per cent, according to the best authorities. 
And in cold storage construction, where it is necessary to 
provide double columns and beams along all outside walls 
the difference in cost may exceed even these figures. 

The available storage space in the lower stories of a 
tall building will depend somewhat upon the size of the 
columns, and since concrete columns must be made much 
larger than steel columns, to carry the same load, we 
arrive at the maximum height of ten stories for cold stor- 
age buildings, when concrete construction is used. Col- 
umns 30 inches in diameter, made of reinforced concrete, 
mixed in the proportion of one part cement, one part sand 
and two parts of crushed stone, were used in the basement 
of a ten-story cold storage warehouse designed by the 
author. The spacing of the columns was 16x18 feet and 
the live load on all floors was figured at 200 pounds per 
square foot. This size column was not objectionable from 
a storage standpoint but appeared to be about the maxi- 
mum size which should be used in a carefully designed 
building of this character. 



COMMERCIAL COLD STORAGE BUILDINGS 



125 



The saving made by using concrete columns instead of 
structural steel was a considerable amount and more than 
sufficient to offset the reduction in storage space in the 
lower stories. 

Floors built of reinforced concrete should be designed 
to meet the special requirements and conditions of a cold 
storage warehouse. These requirements are so exacting 
from the standpoint of insulation, piping, overhead track- 
ing, drainage, etc., that the most careful consideration must 
be given to all details. 

In Figure 71 is illustrated a type of floor construction 
which is often adopted by inexperienced designers of cold 
storage buildings. Concrete girders are placed between the 
columns, and smaller floor beams built crosswise between 



fT' 



FLOOR. BEAM 



REFBlGEEATlNCi 
PJPE3 



16' O" 



4 i ^1 ■>• 

■» (I II II- 

■• II II 1^ 



FIG. 71 — SECTION OP FLOOR WITH BEAM AND GIRDER 
CONSTRUCTION. 

the girders, in order to reduce the thickness of the floor 
slab. This arrangement of structural members reduces 
the amount of reinforcing steel required, and is, therefore, 
advocated by many engineers who design and sell steel for 
concrete buildings. This type of floor construction is not 
adapted to cold storage rooms on account of the lost space 
between the refrigerating pipes and the ceiling above. This 
loss will amount to 12 inches on each story, when the gird- 
ers are 16 feet apart, which is the usual distance in com- 
mon practice for this class of building. The story heights 
must, therefore, be Increased accordingly, in order to have 
the required height for storage below the piping. In a ten 
story structure this would mean ten feet added to the 
height of the building, without any increase in the storage 
capacity. Another objection to this type of construction 



126 



COMMERCIAL COLD STORAGE BUILDINGS 



will be found in the girders and beams on the underside 
of the ceiling. These interfere with the free circulation 
of air in the rooms and cause moisture to condense on the 
ceiling. 

The same type of construction is frequently used 
where structural steel is employed instead of reinforced 
concrete and is, therefore, subject to the same criticism. 



i» •» 1» 1» 

<i (► It (»■ 

it H (I ^ 



P1PE3 



l&'-o" 



^ 



FIG. 72 — SECTION OP FLOOR WITH GUTTER CONSTRUCTION. 

In Figure 72 is illustrated a type of floor construction 
in which the crossbeams are omitted and the reinforced 
concrete slab supported directly on the girders. With this 
arrangement the refrigerating pipes run parallel to the 
girders and are placed close to the ceiling, so as not to 
reduce the headroom for storage. 



EEFRIGEUWINCj 
PIPES 



l6'- o " 



FIG. 73— SECTION OF FLOOR WITH CANTILEVER FLAT SLAB 
CONSTRUCTION. 



This construction is specially recommended when the 
floors must be drained by continuous gutters, which is often 
required in packing house coolers. The gutters should 
then be placed close to the girders and the reinforced floor 
slab depressed to the required depth of the gutter. 

In Figure 73 is illustrated a flat slab type of floor, 
where both girders and beams are omitted. This floor is 



COMMERCIAL COLD STORAGE BUILDINGS 127 

very well adapted to cold storage construction and has 
been used in many buildings recently erected. The flat 
ceiling-surface provides an unobstructed surface for the 
circulation of air and the refrigerating pipes can be placed 
in any direction desired without interfering with the stor- 
age of goods. 

The only objection which the author has found with 
the flat slab construction is in the draining of the floor. It 



PIG. 74 — FORMS FOR CANTILEVER FLAT SLAB FLOOR. 
Merchants Cold Storage & Warehouse Co., Chicago, 111. 

is impossible to design the reinforcement so as to take 
care of continuous floor gutters, except by placing wide and 
shallow beams directly under the gutters, and this is not a 
satisfactory solution of the problem. Where this feature 
does not enter into the construction, the flat slab is recom- 
mended as the most economical and practical floor for 
cold storage purposes. 

In Figure 74 is illustrated the forms for the flrst floor 
of a cold storage building built with flat slab floors. Note 



128 COMMERCIAL COLD STORAGE BUILDINGS 

the double wall columns and the split columns in the centre 
of the building. 

Walls 

The construction of exterior walls for cold storage 
buildings has received a great deal of attention from archi- 
tects and engineers in the past, and the result has given 
us a lot of information from which to draw conclusions 
regarding the best methods to follow. 

The walls of present buildings have been built in 
various ways. We have solid brick walls, stone walls, rein- 
forced concrete walls, tile walls, with and without plastered 
exteriors, and a combination of hollow tile and brick. 

Walls are classified as self-supporting when the load 
is carried by the wall, and as curtain walls when the load is 
carried on steel or reinforced concrete beams and columns. 

The selection of material to be used in the construc- 
tion should be governed by the type of wall under con- 
sideration. In high buildings where all the weight is 
supported on the skeleton construction, it will be more 
economical to use the lightest material in order to reduce 
the size of the supporting frame work and the foundation. 

For buildings up to five stories in height, a self-sup- 
porting wall of the thickness required by the City ordinance, 
will be the most economical to construct. When the height 
exceeds five stories, the skeleton construction should be 
adopted. 

In modern cold storage construction, the walls act only 
as an enclosure around the building and the loads from the 
fioor and roof are supported on an interior framework, 
placed adjacent to the wall. These should, therefore, be 
built of the material which will most effectively resist the 
transmission of heat and moisture. The insulating value 
of a wall is never taken into consideration when figuring 
the insulation, and the relative heat transmission of the 
different building materials can, therefore, be considered as 
a negligible factor. The ability of a wall to resist moisture 
is of far greater importance, since the wall acts principally 
as outside protection for the insulation and the efficiency of 



COMMERCIAL COLD STORAGE BUILDINGS 129 

this is always more or less affected by moisture. For this 
reason, the solid brick or concrete walls are not so well 
adapted for outside walls as hollow tile. The porosity of 
ordinary building brick is frequently so great that during 
heavy rainstorms the water has been known to penetrate 
a 12-inch wall and run down on the inside. 

Hollow tile walls are undoubtedly best adapted to cold 
storage use, from an insulating standpoint. They resist 
moisture and have some value as insulating material on 
account of the hollow spaces where the air is confined. The 
structural parts of the tile will transmit heat through the 
wall, practically to the same extent as if solid material were 
used in the construction, and it is not recommended that 
less insulation be provided, than is used with brick or con- 
crete walls. 

The cost of unplastered tile walls will be about the 
same as when common brick or concrete is used. Plaster- 
ing will increase the cost about five cents per square foot 
of wall surface, and since it adds to the life of the wall and 
greatly improves the appearance, it should not be left off. 

A combination of hollow tile and hard vitrified brick, 
as illustrated by Figure 75, is recommended for the con- 
struction of all types of cold storage walls. It can be used 
equally well for self-supporting as for skeleton walls. 

The vitrified brick will resist moisture better than any 
other building material of the same cost, and when laid as 
a veneer against an inside backing of hollow tile, we have 
a combination of materials which will give excellent results. 
The wall should be laid in Portland cement mortar and the 
brick should be bonded to the tile with a continuous header 
course of brick every two feet. The thickness of the wall 
should not be less than 16 inches, four inches of brick and 
twelve inches of tile. This, however, must be governed by 
the requirements ofthe building regulations and the Insur- 
ance Underwriters. 
Insulation and Its Influence on the Construction 

The purpose of the insulation in a cold storage build- 
ing is to prevent, as much as possible, the transmission of 



130 



COMMERCIAL COLD STORAGE BUILDINGS 




1/4'Dl/^LTLB. 6MVANIZLD 
ftNCHOlL 50LT«5 btT 
WLLN COLUWNO 5^ 
5LA.M-3 



-lNr)ULM10H 



PLAN or COLUMNv!) 



FIG. 75 — SECTION THROUGH COLD STORAGE WALLS. 



COMMERCIAL COLD STORAGE BUILDINGS 131 

heat from the outside surroundings to the inside of the 
building. Therefore, the most efficient way of insulating 
would be to entirely separate the interior construction from 
the outside walls and fill the space between with insulating 
material. This is the method adopted in all modern ware- 
houses. 

The illustration shown in Figure 75 is typical of this 
kind of construction. Here the outside walls are built inde- 
pendently of the inside structure and the floors and roof 
are supported on columns and beams placed adjacent to the 
wall. The distance between the wall and column is deter- 
mined by the thickness of the insulating material. The 
building is tied together with iron anchors placed in the 
walls and built into the columns and girders at all floor- 
levels. 

The insulation is applied to the wall and continued up 
behind the columns and beams until it meets the roof insula- 
tion, which is laid on top of the roof structure. In this 
manner, the interior of the building is entirely enveloped 
by the insulation. The only contact between the walls and 
the interior structure is through the anchor-bolts and these 
are only a fractional percentage of the total wall surface 
and therefore practically negligible. 

Another and cheaper method of construction is illus- 
trated by Figure 76. Here the loads from the floors and 
roof panels adjoining the walls, are carried by girders which 
rest on the outside walls. In order to reduce the transmis- 
sion of heat through the girders, these are insulated on 
the sides and ends where they come in contact with the 
brick work. i 

The tops and bottoms of the girders are, therefore, the 
only parts through which any heat transmission can take 
place. The floor slab is kept away from the wall and the 
insulation made continuous from cellar to roof, except 
where the girders intersect. At the end panels of the build- 
ing, where the floor slab (in ordinary construction) would 
rest on the wall, it becomes necessary to place beams be- 



132 



COMMERCIAL COLD STORAGE BUILDINGS 



tween the girders, to carry the end of the floor slab, m 
order to provide room for the wall insulation. 

Where large buildings are divided into separate fire- 
risks, the fire-walls should be constructed in the same man- 
ner as the outside walls and insulated against the passing 
of cold from one section of the building to another. This 
apphes also to the construction of walls around vestibules 
and elevator shafts. 

Public cold storage buildings must be built to carry 
goods in temperatures ranging from 10° Fahr. below zero 
to 32° Fahr. and above. The space should, therefore, be 



IN5ULWION 



XCTION 




4'C.OILK. 60AILD 



AJLDUND bLNM 



I E>t.AM 



PL^N 



-INSULATION 



1 



PUN Of aomuL 



FIG. 76— INSULATION OF BEAMS IN OUTSIDE WALL. 

divided into freezer and ordinary cold storage rooms, and 
the division between the two kinds of cold storage must be 
insulated. 

The most economical and efficient arrangement of the 
space would be a vertical division of the building into sec- 
tions and to maintain nearly the same temperature on all 
floors in any one section. This would require an insulated 
partition or division-wall between each section, but there 
would be no need of insulating any of the intermediate 
floors or ceilings between the cellar and the roof. 



COMMERCIAL COLD STORAGE BUILDINGS 133 

The cost of the insulation will be materially reduced 
where this arrangement is carried out as will be seen by 
the following comparison: 

A three-story building 100x100 feet is divided into 
two-thirds cold storage and one-third freezer storage. If 
the top floor is used as a freezer, the floor must be insulated, 
which would mean 10,000 square feet of insulation. On the 
other hand, if the building is divided vertically into two- 
thirds cold storage and one-third freezer, this would only 
require an insulated partition 100 feet long and about 
33 feet high, equal to 3,300 square feet of insulation. The 
saving would be 6,700 square feet. If cork board is used 
the approximate price would be 30 cents per square foot 
for 4-inch cork and the saving $2,010.00. 

The dividing partition between the two kinds of stor- 
age should be built continuous from one end of the building 
to the other, and from the lowest floor to the top. In order 
to do this the columns and floor beams should be split as 
shown in Figure 77 and the insulation continued between 
the columns and up through the floor construction. 

The vertical division of the space makes it unnecessary 
to insulate the columns as the cold traveling downwards 
through the columns will be of the same temperature as 
that in the rooms. 

In tall buildings there is an advantage in insulating the 
ceiling every third or fourth story. This makes it possible 
to shut off the refrigeration on a series of floors in case the 
business does not require that the entire building be refrig- 
erated. ' 

Horizontal divisions of insulated space in a concrete 
building should always be made by pla*cing the insulation 
on the ceiling and not on the floor above. 

Cork insulation can be laid in the forms before the 
concrete is poured, at less expense than when it is placed 
on top of the concrete slab after this is completed. It 
avoids also the necessity of laying a wearing-floor over the 
insulation. 

The insulating of floors which rest on the ground, is a 



134 



COMMERCIAL COLD STORAGE BUILDINGS 



question over which there is a wide difference of opinion. 
The temperature of the soil, talten a few feet below the 
surface, remains practically constant at 55° Fahr. and must 
be considered as a fairly good conductor of heat. It would, 
therefore, seem advisable to insulate all ground floors with 
the same care as would be used under similar conditions 
above the ground. 



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ITION 



OLCTION 



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FIG. 77— INSULATION THROUGH FLOOR. 

Freezer rooms should not be placed in the basement 
of any building. The problem of insulating the floor so as 
to prevent the frost from getting into the ground is one 
which is most difficult to overcome. 

The author knows of a building in which the freezer 
floor was insulated with six inches of cork over six inches 
of concrete and under this was placed a bed of 12-inch dry 



COMMERCIAL COLD STORAGE BUILDINGS 135 

cinders. The underlying ground was supposed to be thor- 
oughly drained by tile sewers, but, in spite of this, the 
ground froze solid for 18 inches below the cinders and 
caused considerable damage to the building. It should be 
mentioned that the columns were protected by five inches 
of cork board. 

The roof must be insulated when the top-story is refrig- 
erated and where the attic is omitted between the ceiling 
and the roof. 

This method of construction is now generally adopted 
for well-designed buildings. It reduces the height of the 
outside walls and decreases the expense accordingly. 

The roof insulation is laid directly on the roof-struc- 
ture in a bed of liquid asphalt and the finished roofing put 
down over the insulation. 

If an air-space is built over the top-story, the attic thus 
formed should be well ventilated on all sides, in order to 
remove the heat which comes through the roof. 

The insulation over the attic fioor can be laid with 
granulated cork or some other kind of loose filler and 
should be protected by a covering of boards. 

The dense materials which are used in the construc- 
tion of fireproof buildings make it necessary to insulate 
between fioors in cases where the rooms above and below 
are carried at different temperatures. Unless this is done a 
great deal of annoyance will be experienced from moisture 
which condenses on the ceiling. 

Concrete columns should be insulated to prevent sweat- 
ing, in rooms where the temperature is higher than in the 
room above or below. This refers particularly to columns 
in shipping rooms and offices, wl^ere these are located 
within the cold storage building. 

It is the author's experience that offices cannot be 
located successfully in a building which has cold storage 
rooms on the floor above or below the office. The great 
difference in temperature on the two sides of the insulation 
will make the office damp and humid in the summer and 
very difficult to heat in the winter. These conditions not 



136 COMMERCIAL COLD STORAGE BUILDINGS 

only affect the health of the employees but make it difficult 
to keep stationery and office supplies in proper condition. 

In a cold storage building designed by the author, 
there were freezer rooms above the office and it was neces- 
sary to turn on steam in radiators every morning during the 
warm weather to overcome the dampness in the office. The 
concrete ceilings and columns were insulated with six 
inches of cork board and plastered. 

Details of insulation designed for use in modern cold 
storage buildings, are illustrated and described in Chapter 
XV. 



CHAPTER XIV 

EXAMPLES OF RECENT COLD STORAGE 
CONSTRUCTION 

Example No. 1 

The following illustrations, Figures 78 to 82, inclusive, 
show the plant of the Merchants Cold Storage and Ware- 
house Co., in Chicago, 111., which was erected in 1913. 

The building occupies an area of 230x130 feet and is 
seven stories high with cellar. On account of the large area 
occupied, it was decided to divide this into three sections, 
separated by brick fire walls. This was done principally to 
avoid the increase in insurance rate which the companies 
impose upon buildings of this character when the area is 
in excess of 10,000 square feet. The division of the floor 
space also provided a convenient and practical arrangement 
of the plant from an operating standpoint, inasmuch as 
commercial demands require storage rooms with tempera- 
tures ranging from 10° Pahr. below zero to 32° Fahr. and 
above. Each section of the building was, therefore, designed 
for the storage of goods to be carried at certain tempera- 
tures. The north end was arranged for freezer storage, 
the centre section for eggs and apples and the south end 
for storage of fruits and vegetables. 

C^oods are received and shipped over three private 
switch tracks, of which two enter the building in the centre 
section and the third runs alongside* the south end. This 
trackage provides storage room for nine cars at one time. 

Local shipments are handled by wagon delivery from 
the front of the building, and the sidewalk on Halsted 
street was raised to the level of the first fioor and used as a 
platform. 



138 



RECENT COLD STORAGE CONSTRUCTION 



The elevators were placed adjoining the central ship- 
ping platforms with two elevators on each side of the rail- 
road tracks. 

All communications between the different sections are 
through fireproof vestibules, with the door-openings pro- 
tected by double fire doors. The vestibules were made to 
include the elevators and stairways, allowing ample pas- 





//. /-'. Ilrn.uhicn. .Irchiti 

FIG. 78— MERCHANTS COLD STORAGE & WAREHOUSE CO., 
CHICAGO, ILL. 



sage room for the handling of trucks to and from the ele- 
vators. 

The building is of fireproof construction, with brick 
walls carried on concrete skeleton framework. The floors 
are of the flat slab type of reinforced concrete and were 
designed for a load of 200 pounds per square foot of area. 

The arrangement of all structural parts will be seen 
by referring to the floor plans and section. The outside 



RECENT COLD STORAGE CONSTRUCTION 



139 



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K 
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xn 

or 



L. L Tl_(vOtL 



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1 „.ro«„ VLOTlbULL JS.- ^- 

-T »| Ji, I ^ , , jilt- H j 




140 RECENT COLD STORAGE CONSTRUCTION 

walls support only their own weight and do not carry- 
any of the loads from the floor and roof construction. The 
floor panels adjoining the walls are supported on concrete 
columns placed six inches away from the wall. This is done 
to provide room for the insulation which is built behind the 
columns and made continuous from the cellar to the roof. 
The interior of the building is, therefore, entirely sur- 
rounded by the insulation and there is no contact between 
the walls and the floor construction except the 1-inch 
anchor bolts, which tie the structural parts together. 

Corkboard of the thickness shown in the section was 
used as insulating material and was put up with cement 
mortar in the cold storage rooms and with hot asphalt in 
the freezers. The insulation has given very satisfactory 
results during the two years in which the building has been 
in operation. It may be of general interest to know of one 
exception to this statement and one which was not foreseen 
at the time the building was designed. The owners expe- 
rience some difficulty in keeping an even temperature 
along the east wall of the centre section during the winter. 
This difficulty is only present during heavy windstorms 
accompanied by a freezing temperature. The cold then 
penetrates into the rooms and makes it necessary to place 
lanterns along the wall to prevent the goods in storage from 
freezing. 

Since there are only two small windows on each floor 
in this section (84 feet), it must be assumed that this dif- 
flculty is caused by the increased atmospheric pressure on 
the outside of the wall which enables the cold to penetrate 
even the insulation. 

The top story of the building is not refrigerated and it 
was therefore necessary to insulate the entire ceiling of the 
sixth story. This could not prevent the cold from passing 
up through the columns supporting the roof and these were, 
therefore, made of cast-iron and the hollow space inside 
of the column was filled with granulated cork, for a dis- 
tance of four feet above the floor line. 



RECENT COLD STORAGE CONSTRUCTION 



141 




142 



RECENT COLD STORAGE CONSTRUCTION 




144 



RECENT COLD STORAGE CONSTRUCTION 



The detail of the columns and the manner m which 
they were placed is illustrated by Figure 83. 

The refrigerating machinery is located on the top floor 
of the south section. Three units of 150 tons refrigerating 
capacity were provided. The machines were of the absorp- 
tion type and operated by exhaust steam which was pur- 
chased from an adjoining manufacturing plant, which also 
furnished the current for the electric hght and power. 



MLT^L 



<LK~y[ mON COLUMN 
6GANULMLD ODllK 



OPLN 




ACTION 



PIG. S3— TOP STORY COLUMN SHOWING INSULATION. 



The storage rooms are refrigerated by the circulation 
of brine which is cooled in three circular, horizontal-type 
brine coolers, five feet in diameter and eighteen feet long. 
Calcium brine is used at a temperature of — 20° Fahr. in one 
cooler, zero brine in the second and +15° Fahr. in the 
third. The brine is handled by three pumps with 8-inch 



RECENT COLD STORAGE CONSTRUCTION 



145 



suction and 8-inch discharge pipes, the pipe decreasing in 
diameter as it reaches the lower floors, to a minimum of 
three inches in the cellar. The return line increases in the 
same proportion until it discharges into two open balanc- 
ing tanks, six feet in diameter and five feet deep, which 
are placed above the pumps. 

The piping in the rooms is of two inch spellerized steel 
except in the egg rooms where galvanized pipe is used. All 




FIG. 84 — REFRIGERATING MACHINERY ON TOP FLOOR. 

Merchants Cold Storage & Warehouse Co. 
pipes are hung from the ceiling in coils of various lengths, 
which are placed along the outside walls and in the working 
alleys. The ratios of piping to the cubic space, was figured 
as follows: Egg and apple rooms, one lineal foot of 2-inch 
pipe to fifteen cubic feet of space; 15° Fahr. rooms, one 
foot of pipe to eight feet of space, and sharp freezers, one to 
three. 



146 



RECENT COLD STORAGE CONSTRUCTION 



The sharp freezer for boxed goods, on the first floor 
was arranged with raclts made of 2-inch pipes. These were 
placed in tiers from 16 to 20 inches apart horizontally. 
Working-alleys four feet, six inches wide were provided 
between each two racks. 

The capacity of the refrigerating machine is in excess 
of the actual requirements in the cold storage building and 
it should be mentioned that these machines are also being 




FIG. 85 — REFRIGERATING MACHINERY ON TOP FLOOR. 
Merchants Cold Storage & Warehouse Co. 

utilized for the manufacturing of about 80 tons of ice per 
day. 

The total cubic contents of the building, taking the 
outside measurements, is 2,775,000 cubic feet. 

The available cold storage space is approximately 
1,650,000 cubic feet after deducting the space taken up by 
the construction, railroad tracks, vestibules and the top 
story. 



RECENT COLD STORAGE CONSTRUCTION 



147 



The cost of building equipment was $425,000.00 The 
time required for the construction was 14 months. The 
insurance rate on the building is 21 cents in the south sec- 
tion; 22 cents in the central section and 23 cents in the 
north section. The rate for insurance on contents in the 
corresponding sections is 17, 18 and 19 cents. 

The refrigerating machinery in this plant includes the 
most modern equipment in use for cold storage buildings 




FIG. 86— REFRIGERATING MACHINERY ON TOP FLOOR. 

Merchants Cold Storage & Warehouse Co. 

and it may, therefore, be of interest toigive a more detailed 
description of each part of the entire system, in connection 
with the illustrations. Figures 84 to 87, inclusive. 

The three individual units are cross-connected at the 
anhydrous liquid receivers and at the ammonia pumps. The 
ammonia absorbers are connected so as to draw gas from 
three brine coolers or direct from three 50-ton ice-making 
tanks, located outside of the building. 



148 RECENT COLD STORAGE CONSTRUCTION 

The ammonia generators are of horizontal type with 
jointless steel shells, and vertical flat steam coils are ar- 
ranged for exhaust steam. The absorbers are of the hori- 
zontal tubular type with tubes arranged for twenty passes 
of water. 

The exchangers are of the vertical shell type with 
helical coils, two 75-ton units for each machine. 

The pumps are of the single, direct, double-acting, 
steam type, automatically controlled by the liquid level in 




FIG. S 7— REFRIGERATING MACHINERY ON TOP FLOOR. 
Merchants Cold Storage & Warehouse Co. 

the absorber by float valves which open and shut the steam 
throttle valve controlling the pump. 

The brine coolers are of the horizontal, tubular type, 
arranged for ten passes of brine, with outlet brine as low 
as 20" below zero, Fahr. The brine pumps are located at 
the ends of the brine coolers and draw brine from an over- 
head tank, discharge through the brine coolers, and thence 



RECENT COLD STORAGE CONSTRUCTION 149 

to the coils in the storage rooms from which the return is 
carried to a tank directly above the brine coolers. 

The balance of the refrigerating machinery is located 
on a steel platform, above the main engine room. 

The rectifiers are of the vertical, flat, double pipe- 
coil type, consisting of 2-inch and 4-inch pipe. 

The condensers are of the double pipe, vertical, flat- 
coil type, consisting of iy2-inch a,nd 2y2-inch pipe. 

The weak liquor coolers are of the double-pipe type 
with 2-inch and 3-inch flat, vertical coils. 

The auxiliary pumps for all three machines are steam 
driven and exhaust into one generator, which is used for 
the lowest brine temperature. The other generators depend 
on exhaust from the general power plant. 

These machines condense approximately 35 pounds of 
steam per hour per ton of refrigerating effect and require 
about two gallons of 60-degree water for the cooling coils, 
per minute, per ton of refrigeration. 

Example No. 2 

The cold storage plant of the Twin Cities Cold Storage 
Co., Minneapolis, Minn., is illustrated in Figures 88 to 92, 

This plant was completed in 1914, and is, therefore, 
one of the most recent examples of cold storage construc- 
tion in the country. It covers an area of 100x140 feet and 
is eight stories high, with a cellar. 

The construction was designed to include two addi- 
tional stories to be put on at some future time, making the 
building ten stories in height. 

When the erection of the plant was contemplated the 
owners were confronted with an insuji'ance problem which 
all cold storage owners are more or less familiar with, 
namely, that of locating the power plant so that it would 
not increase the insurance rate on the cold storage build- 
ing. To avoid having the power plant within the main 
building, it was decided to place the boiler and engine rooms 
on the other side of the public driveway, as shown on the 
first story floor-plan. Figure 89. 



150 



RECENT COLD STORAGE CONSTRUCTION 



The land for the power plant was leased from the City 
and consisted of a piece of property underneath a viaduct, 
crossing the railroad yard to the north of the plant. It 
was necessary to make deep excavations for the boilers 
and refrigerating machinery, below the present grade, and 




Henscliien, Architect. 



FIG 88 — COLD STORAGE BUILDING. 
Booth Fisheries Co., Minneapolis, Minn. 

the owners were put to heavy expense in underpinning the 
abutment wall and columns supporting the viaduct. This 
greatly increased the cost of the plant, but it reduced the 
insurance rate sufficiently to warrant the additional expen- 
diture and, in the end, proved a good investment. In order 
to further reduce the rate the area of the cold storage 
building was divided into two sections by a brick fire-wall, 



RECENT COLD STORAGE CONSTRUCTION 



151 



SO as to avoid the charge imposed on floor areas over 10,000 
square feet. 

The building is of fireproof construction, with skele- 
ton brick walls and reinforced concrete posts and floors, 
which are supported independently of the outside walls. 




'^■'y'////////y//'/////y//y/y'//A/,i//y//////'///////////////////,wyyy'^i 



PIG. S 9— FIRST STORY FLOOR PLAN— COLD STORAGE BUILDING. 
Booth Fisheries Co., Minneapolis, Minn. 



The flat-slab type of floor construction was used and 
this was designed for a live load of 200 pounds per square 
foot, and the columns spaced on 16x18 foot centres. It was 
necessary to use a very strong mixture of concrete in the 
columns, in order to reduce their size in the lower stories. 
By mixing the concrete with one part cement, one part of 
sand and two parts of crushed rock and using both spiral 



152 



RECENT COLD STORAGE CONSTRUCTION 



and vertical reinforcing steel, the columns were reduced 
to 30 inches diameter in the the cellar, 28 inches on the first 
and second stories, 24 inches on the third and fourth 
stories, 22 inches on the fifth, 20 inches on the sixth and 18 
inches on the seventh and eighth stories. 



COLD ;3r012ACL 




n^LLZLC >5T0WCiL 



"W 



DLPCL30E.D DDIVLWW 



FIG. 90— THIRD STORY FLOOR PLAN. 



The roof was built so as to constitute the future ninth 
story and a filling of cinders was laid on the top of the 
concrete floor-slab and graded to the downspouts. Over 
the cinders was placed two inches of concrete as support 
for the roofing material. Whenever the additional two 
stories are put up, the cinders can be removed and the 
present roof-slab used as a floor. 



RECENT COLD STORAGE CONSTRUCTION 153 

The shipping facihties include two railroad tracks at 
the north end of the building. One of these, however, is 
a public siding and can only be used when there is no other 
traffic demanding service. 

The cars are unloaded from the first story floor level 
into a large receiving and shipping room adjoining the 



:/ 




PIG. 91— TYPICAL FLOOR PLAN. 



railroad tracks. All wagon dehveries are made from the 
wagon court at the level of the third floor. 

The building is served by three large elevators with 
eight feet, six inch by nine feet, six inch car platforms, 
and one package elevator which runs from the first to the 
third floor only. The elevator, stairs and smoke-stack, are 



154 



RECENT COLD STORAGE CONSTRUCTION 



placed within a large vestibule and arranged so that there 
is a 10-foot trucking passage on each side of the elevators. 
The openings in the elevator shafts are protected by auto- 
matic safety gates, and the door openings into the storage 
rooms, by double fire doors. The inner fire door is bolted 
to the refrigerator door wherever both types of doors are 
needed. 

The building is divided into cold storage and freezer 
rooms with temperatures ranging from 15° Fahr. below 



BUILDING DESIGNED FOB TWO ADDITIONAL :3TOCIE3 




PIG. 92 — LONGITUDINAL SECTION. 



zero, to 32° Fahr. above. The freezers are placed in one 
section of the building and extend from the third to the top 
floor. The other rooms are for egg and fruit storage and 
are designed for 28° to 32° Fahr. temperatures. 

The top floor is not refrigerated and is used as a gen- 
eral dry storage room. 

The insulation is of pure cork board, erected in Port- 
land cement mortar and nailed with wooden meat skewers. 
Six inches of cork was put on the outside walls of the 
freezers; five inches on the wall between the cold storage 
and the freezers; five inches on the outside walls of the cold 



RECENT COLD STORAGE CONSTRUCTION 155 

storage, except on the south wall, which was insulated with 
six inches of cork. 

All ceiling insulation was five inches in thickness and 
the cellar floor was insulated with three inches of impreg- 
nated cork board. 

Partitions and columns were insulated with from four 
to six inches of cork. 

The insulation was finished with two coats of plaster, 
composed of Portland cement mortar and asbestos fibre. 

The building is refrigerated by absorption refrigerating 
machinery and the rooms are cooled by circulation of cal- 
cium chloride brine. 

The refrigerating equipment which was installed is 
far in excess of the actual requirements of the cold storage 
building, since the company furnishes refrigeration to many 
outside users in the vicinity of the plant. 

All piping in the rooms was of 2-inch spellerized steel 
and the coils were grouped on the ceiling and along the 
walls. The ratios of piping to the number of cubic feet of 
space were as follows : 

Fish freezing and dipping room 1: 2i/^ 

Storage freezers for butter and poultry 1:5 

Quick storage rooms 1: 8 

Egg rooms 1:13 

Fruit storage rooms 1:13 

Oyster room 1:25 

The gross cubic contents of the building is 1,330,000 
feet and the net cold storage space is 850,000 cubic feet. 
It required 13 months to complete the construction work 
and the approximate cost of the plant was $300,000. To 
this should be added the cost of the insulation and piping on 
the four upper fioors, which will not be put in until some 
future time. * 

Example No. 3 

In Figures 93, 94 and 95 are illustrated a small cold 
storage building and a 50-ton ice manufacturing plant. The 
arrangement of the buildings offers exceptional facilities 
for convenient handling of all commodities. 



156 



RECENT COLD STORAGE CONSTRUCTION 



Two railroad tracks enter the centre of the property 
so that coal and ice can be handled from one side and cold 
storage products on the other. By extending the platform 
along the railroad track, additional loading facilities can 
be provided. 

The plans and sectional drawings show in detail how 




FIG. 93 — FIRST STORY FLOOR PLAN — COLD STORAGE AND ICE 
MAKING PLANT. 



each building is arranged so that a further description of 
the plant will not be necessary. 

The planning was done with a view of leaving room for 
future expansion on at least one side of each building, 
without having to demolish any of the work already com- 
pleted. 



RECENT COLD STORAGE CONSTRUCTION 



157 



















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FIG. 94 — TYPICAL FLOOR PLAN — COLD STORAGE AND ICE MAKING 

PLANT. 




FIG. 95 — TRANSVERSE SECTION — COLD STORAGE AND ICE MAKING 

PLANT. 



158 RECENT COLD STORAGE CONSTRUCTION 

The capacity of the plant is about 50,000 barrels of 
apples besides the cold stores for meat or produce shown 
on the first story plan. 



CHAPTER XV 
INSULATION 

Introduction 

When we speak of insulation in connection with cold 
storage buildings, we mean such materials which are effi- 
cient non-conductors of heat and will in practical applica- 
tion limit the transmission of heat between cold storage 
rooms and their surroundings. It is only within recent 
years that efficient and durable insulation has come into 
universal use in packing-house and cold storage buildings. 

Along with the improvements in building construc- 
tion came the demand for more permanent and fire resist- 
ing materials. Leading companies, engaged in the manu- 
facturing of cork insulation, began some years ago to make 
investigations at their experimental stations regarding the 
relative efficiency of the various materials and methods 
of construction then in use. 

Several of our great technical schools did noteworthv 
laboratory work along the same lines, and from the results 
thereby obtained we have received a great deal of valuable 
information which is now being adapted to the varied con- 
ditions found in cold storage construction. 

Too often the question of first cost and good salesman- 
ship enter into the final choice of the materials considered. 
When the buyer is conversant with the results obtained 
from the various insulating materials in the past, he gen- 
erally knows what to expect of the material he buys. 

In the selection of a satisfactory insulating material 
there are certain fundamental qualities to be considered 
and, with one exception, that of heat transmission, these 
requirements are the same as would be expected of any 
first-class material used in a modern fireproof structure. 



160 INSULATION 

The points to be considered are: 

First. Efficiency in resisting heat-transmission. 

Second. Durability. 

Third. Sanitation. 

Fourth. Fire resistance. 

Fifth. Structural strength. 

Sixth. Cost. 

It should be remembered, however, that no insulating 
contractor will guarantee that his material will maintain 
the desired temperature in the rooms, and therefore the 
best is often the only thing which can be depended upon 
and, in the end, will prove to be the cheapest. 
Importance of Good Insulation 

The cost of maintaining low temperatures is materially 
reduced by efficient insulation. When refrigeration must 
constantly be pumped into a building to keep the tempera- 
ture from rising, it seems wasteful to use inefficient insula- 
tion. 

Even the best insulating materials will not prevent the 
transmission of heat between the inside and outside of a 
room, on account of the difference in pressure between 
warm and cold air. 

The amount of refrigeration required to hold a room 
at the desired temperature depends largely upon the effi- 
ciency of the insulation, and since good insulation means 
a daily saving in the cost of operation, it should be con- 
sidered of as great importance as the refrigerating ma- 
chinery. 

Durability 

The cost of insulating a building is always high and 
for this reason only materials should be considered which 
are durable and of a permanent insulating value under 
the most adverse conditions. Many excellent materials of 
high insulating value, such as mill shavings, mineral wool, 
and hair-felt, will rapidly lose their efficiency when exposed 
to the changes in temperature which are always going on 
between cold storage rooms and their surroundings. This 



INSULATION 161 

is caused by their capillary attraction and these materials, 
by absorbing the moisture from the air, will in a short 
time, lose their efficiency as insulating media and will have 
to be renewed. They are only suitable for temporary work 
or for partitions between rooms of nearly the same tem- 
perature. 

Sanitation 

Insulation forms the inner lining of cold storage rooms 
and it is essential that it should be sanitary as well as 
odorless and germ proof. When the insulation or its cov- 
ering has the least tendency to mold or decay from mois- 
ture, there is always the danger that the goods stored will 
absorb the odors from the insulation. 

Commodities such as butter, cream and eggs are easily 
tainted by foreign odors, while they are held in storage, and 
it is most important that the insulation should not contain 
odors which will affect the goods. The insulation of parti- 
tions which separate storage rooms must be such as will 
prevent odors from penetrating from one room to another. 

Types of insulation which contain large air spaces and 
any materials in which rats and other vermin can find har- 
boring places, are highly objectionable and difficult to keep 
in a sanitary condition. 

Fire-Resistance 

The use of fireproof construction for commercial and 
packing house cold storage makes fire-retarding insulation 
a necessity, heretofore not so considered. It becomes nec- 
essary to adopt compact, slow-burning materials covered 
by plaster or other fire-resisting substances. Concealed 
air spaces and infiammable materials are not to be con- 
sidered. Only such types of construbtion and materials 
as have been tested and approved by the Board of Fire 
Underwriters should be used in fireproof buildings. 
Structural Strength 

The necessity of structural strength in the insulating 
material is evident where it is used under brine and ice 
freezing tanks or for floor insulation. Unless there is struc- 



162 INSULATION 

tural strength in the material itself to support the load 
this must be carried by wood or other support of no insulat- 
ing value. 

In partition and ceiling work, the insulation must 
possess sufficient strength to support its own weight as 
well as the plaster finish generally put on. 
Interior Finish 

All material used as insulation requires a covering as 
protection against injury from goods piled against it, and 
also to improve the appearance of the rooms. Walls and 
ceilings are commonly plastered with Portland cement mor- 
tar and finished with a hard troweled surface, giving the 
room a dark grey finish. 

When a better appearance is desired, the finished coat 
of plaster is put on with white cement and given a smooth, 
highly polished surface which can be further improved by 
one or two coats of white enameled paint. Glazed white 
tiling is also extensively used as a finish in high grade 
meat markets and coolers. 

Where wood is used as covering over the insulation 
it should be of dressed, matched lumber and painted on the 
back to prevent warping. The outside should be varnished 
or painted with enamel paint, so as not to absorb any 
odors from goods stored in the rooms. 

Insulating Materials 

The old type of insulation, consisting of air spaces sepa- 
rated by one or two layers of sheathing and waterproof- 
paper, is now almost entirely discarded for use in modern 
permanent buildings. 

The present day theory of efficient insulation is based 
upon using materials in which the air is confined by nu- 
merous separate cells, minutely small, and sealed to pre- 
vent moisture from entering. 

The efficiency of the insulation depends upon how well 
the confined air can be entrapped and upon its freedom 
from capillary attraction. 

The following materials are most commonly used for 
insulation purposes in buildings: 



INSULATION 163 

Mill Shavings 

No other materials have been so extensively used in 
the past as mill shavings and sawdust. They are still in 
frequent use for temporary work and in storage houses for 
natural ice. 

Shavings have a high insulating value when kept dry, 
but, as they absorb moisture rapidly, they soon lose their 
efficiency and have to be renewed. 

They can only be used as a filler between the stud- 
ding in walls or between floor and ceiling joists, and must 
be protected by waterproof paper and sheathing. 

This type of insulation can be installed cheaper than 
any other material and will, undoubtedly, remain in use 
for the cheaper class of construction. 

Shavings from odorless woods, such as spruce or hem- 
lock, are preferable to shavings from more resinous woods. 
Where shavings are not available locally and must be 
shipped in, they can be bought from manufacturers in 
compressed bales. These bales measure 14x18x32 inches 
and weigh 80 pounds. 

One ton of shavings, when used as a filler, and prop- 
erly packed, will occupy approximately 200 cubic feet of 
space and will cost about five dollars a ton at the mill. 
Only dry shavings should be used and must be closely 
packed and the space refilled at the top after the insula- 
tion has settled. , 
Hair Felt 

This is an excellent non-conductor of heat, when kept 
dry. It should not be used in damp places as it will not 
withstand moisture. It decays rapidly when subject to 
dampness, and, being an animal substance, will give out 
offensive odors and attract vermin. 

Hair felt is extensively used by refrigerator car build- 
ers as it is especially adapted for use where there is much 
vibration and where many joints w^ould be objectionable. 
It is inexpensive and easily applied but is not suitable for 
fireproof construction. 

It is manufactured from renovated and dried cattle- 



164 INSULATION 

hair and is sold in rolls of from two to six feet in width. 
The thickness varies from one-fourth of an inch to two 
inches and the length of the roll is generally 50 feet. 

The felt is put up on nailing strips and securely tacked 
into place with large headed galvanized nails. If more 
than one thickness is used, the second layer should break 
joints with the preceding layer. 

Mineral Woo! 

This material is manufactured by subjecting molten 
furnace slag to a steam jet. It is fireproof, light in weight, 
and will not pack as easily as mill shavings when used as a 
filler. It is a good non-conductor of heat when thoroughly 
dry but absorbs moisture very readily. 

Mineral wool furnishes a cheap and efficient insula- 
tion, if properly protected from dampness, and is used 
either as a loose filler in hollow spaces or manufactured 
into compressed blocks with a fibrous binder and put up 
with cement or asphalt on walls and partitions. 

Mineral wool blocks should be coated with asphalt to 
make them waterproof and as the bond between a surface 
covered with asphalt and Portland cement is insufficient to 
permanently keep the blocks in place, they should be put 
up in hot asphalt. 

Partition work should be erected on wood studding and 
the blocks nailed on with wire nails driven through tin 
discs. 

Indurated Fibre Boards 

These boards are made of paper and wood pulp and 
are rather densely compressed. The material is a good non- 
conductor of heat, slow burning and is of fair structural 
strength. It absorbs moisture when exposed and then 
deteriorates rapidly. It forms an excellent insulation for 
partition work and in high temperature rooms of from 
45 to 60 degrees Fahrenheit. It is reasonable in price and 
durable when properly protected from dampness. 

The standard size is 18x48 inches and the thickness 
is from two to three inches. 



INSULATION 165 

Lith 

This material is made from rock-fibre mineral wool 
and begummed flax fibre. The finished material is a com- 
pressed board 18 inches in width, four feet long and two to 
three inches in thickness. It is fairly strong, fight in 
weight, and possesses a high insulating value. 

Lith is made waterproof by oil vapors and is, therefore, 
not fireproof, although it is classed as slow burning. It is 
reasonable in cost and is considered an excefient insulating 
material when kept free from moisture. It has fair struc- 
tural strength and can be put up on walls either in Port- 
land cement or with hot asphalt as a binder. 

When used for partition work, it should be secured to 
wood studding with nails placed at the ends and in the 
middle of each board. It is not recommended for use in 
ceilings when the insulating material must have sufficient 
structural strength to support its own weight as well as the 
plaster finish. 

When lith is used on floor insulation, the weight and 
the floor must be carried by wooden sleepers on account 
of the small compression strength of the insulation. 
Cork Materials 

Insulation made from cork materials has been adopted 
very extensively for all classes of work during the past few 
years. Cork is the outer bark of the cork-oak and is im- 
ported to this country from Spain, Portugal and Northern 
Africa. 

It is made up of numerous cells, see Figure 96, in 
which the air is confined by the natural gum in the cork. 
This makes it highly impervious to moisture and conse- 
quently this material is most efllcient and durable even 
under the most adverse conditions. It is an excellent non- 
conductor of heat, fight in weight and very slow burning. 

Cork as air insulating material in buildings is em- 
ployed in various forms: 
Granulated Cork 

This is made from cork cuttings and is used as a 
filler between double walls and studdings as well as be- 



166 INSULATION 

tween floor and ceiling joists. It is considered as the best 
filler known for commercial uses because of its durability 
and small affinity for moisture. 

It is light in weight, will not pack or settle and is 
practically odorless. Granulated cork is sold in a number 
of grades of different degrees of fineness, and is commer- 
cially known as follows : unscreened cork, screened granu- 
lated cork and regranulated cork. 

Unscreened Granulated Cork 

This is manufactured from the pure cork waste as it 
comes from abroad. The cork is ground to pea size and 
it is then the same material from which the pure cork 




FIG. 96 — UNTREATED CORK UNDER THE MICROSCOPE. 
Magnified 100 Diameters. 

board is manufactured. It is not screened and will weigh 
about six and one-half pounds per cubic foot and is put 
up in bags weighing about 110 pounds. 

Screened Granulated Cork 

This is pure cork waste which is ground and screened 
through various sized mesh screens. It is not as suitable 
for use as a filler as the unscreened cork, on account of its 
even size which allows of too many voids in the filling. It 
will weigh from six to twelve and one-half pounds per 
cubic foot, according to its fineness. 

Regranulated Cork 

This is a by-product of the cork board factories and is 
manufactured from the waste and trimmings of the baked 



INSULATION 167 

cork boards. It is not of equal insulating value to the other 
grades but costs less. It is sold in two grades, fine and 
coarse, and by mixing the two together in the proportion 
of one part of coarse to two parts of fine, the best result 
is obtained. The weight of this mixture should be seven 
pounds per cubic foot. 

Impregnated Cork Board 

This is manufactured from pure cork screenings with 
a binding material of asphalt or high carbon petroleum 
pitch. The best impregnated cork of domestic make will 
contain 95% of cork screenings and is, therefore, an excel- 
lent non-conductor of heat. It is not fireproof, but posses- 
ses good structural strength and is odorless and reason- 
able in cost. In the manufacture of this board, the cork 
is not baked but remains in its natural state, thus retaining 
its life and vitality. The heat transmission of the best 
grade of one inch thickness is 7 B. T. Us. per sq. ft. per 
degree difference, per 24 hours. 

These boards are extensively used in places where there 
is much dampness, such as cellar floors, ice storage rooms, 
and for insulation under ice freezing tanks and brine stor- 
age tanks. When impregnated cork is laid over a concrete 
floor and covered with two inches of concrete as the floor 
finish, the construction is approved by the National Board 
of Fire Underwriters. 

Compressed Pure Cork Boards 

These boards are made from pure cork screenings 
without the use of any foreign binding material. The 
screenings are compressed in cast steel moulds and baked 
in ovens under a temperature between* 600 and 700 degrees 
Fahr. At this temperature the natural gum in the cork is 
liquefied and forms a binder for the granules on cooling. 
Cork boards are manufactured in sizes 12x36 inches and of 
one, one and one-half, two, three and four inches in thick- 
ness. The heat transmission of one inch of cork board is 
6.4 B. T. Us. per sq. ft. per degree difference in temperature 
per 24 hours. 



168 



INSULATION 



On account of its low heat conductivity, its natural 
cellular structure and its durability, this board is unsur- 
passed as an insulating material. It is structurally strong 
and very slow-burning. 

When erected in Portland cement mortar and plas- 
tered on the outside, cork board insulation is approved by 
the National Board of Fire Underwriters and can be used 




PIG. 97 — CORK BOARD INSULATION ON BRICK WALL,. 
Approved by National Board of Fire Underwriters. 



in fireproof buildings (Figure 97). The cost is reasonable, 
considering its durability and the results obtained. 

Weights 1 -inch thick 1 lbs. per sq. ft. 

Weights ll^-inch thick 1.4 lbs. per sq. ft. 

Weights 2 -inch thick 1.7 lbs. per sq. ft. 

Weights 3 -inch thick 2.4 lbs. per sq. ft. 

Weights 4 -inch thick 3.2 lbs. per sq 



ft. 



-inch thick 3.2 lbs. 

As a rule they will not vary more than 5% from the 
above weights. 



INSULATION 169 

Construction Details 

The illustrations of different types of insulations, in 
this chapter, show designs that are adapted to the construc- 
tion of modern buildings and are typical of the best accepted 
practice. 

The author has named cork, in preference to any other 
insulating material, in the belief that cork will give a bet- 
ter return for the money expended. 

The thickness of cork required to properly insulate a 
room for a given temperature, depends upon the climatic 
conditions and the exposure of the building, as well as the 
type of building construction used. 

It is good practice to increase the thickness one inch 
on the south and west walls, on account of their exposure 
to the sun. 

Ordinary cold storage rooms with temperatures rang- 
ing from 30'' to 36° Fahr. require from four to five inches 
of cork board insulation. 

Freezer rooms should not have less than six inches, 
or more, depending upon the climate. 

It should be remembered that the function of a cold 
storage room is to maintain a desired temperature within 
the room during all seasons of the year. In localities where 
there are prolonged periods of very low temperatures, the 
determining factor in the design of the insulation should 
be the extreme cold on the outside of the building. 

The insulation is too important a factor in cold storage 
construction to be designed by general rules. We have 
found In insulation work as we have found in everything 
else that a "rule of thumb" method is not only obsolete 
but unprofitable. * 

There should be a rational selection of the amount 
of material to be used in insulating, otherwise there is 
danger that the insulation will be insufficient or needlessly 
heavy and therefore needlessly expensive. 

The best results are obtained, both in efficiency and 
economy, when the insulation work is handled by someone 
who has a wide knowledge of the value of the different 



170 INSULATION 

insulating materials as well as experience in their practical 
application. 

The usual method of putting up insulation in cement 
mortar is to cover the entire back surface of the board 
with mortar before placing it in position. The boards are 
then firmly pressed into place on the wall and the edges 
and sides left free of mortar, so as to leave as small joints 
as possible. 

When an asphalt binder is used, the boards are dipped, 
on one side and both edges, in a pan filled with hot asphalt 
and are then nailed in place. The cork should be scored 
on both sides to give a good key for the plastering. This 
is done at the factory without charge. It is, however, gen- 
erally omitted by the manufacturer unless the specifica- 
tions call for it. 

The finish applied to the insulation will depend upon 
the use to which the cooler is put. An inexpensive finish 
can be had with Portland cement mortar. This should be 
applied as two-coat work, troweled to a hard, smooth sur- 
face. 

Keene's imported white cement, or glazed and enam- 
eled tiles, are used where a more elaborate finish is desired. 

Double Wall Insulation 

The type of wall insulation shown in Figure 98 con- 
sists of two brick walls, placed from eight to twelve inches 
apart, the width depends upon the thickness of insulation 
required. 

The space between the walls is filled with a loose in- 
sulating material such as granulated cork, mineral wool, 
or mill shavings. 

The outside wall is the building wall proper and is con- 
structed ahead of the inside retaining wall and the two 
are tied together with iron anchors. 

The four-inch wall is built as a panel between the col- 
umns and is supported by the concrete construction at each 
floor level. 

One wall-tie is generally placed in the centre of each 
panel to prevent the wall from buckling under the pres- 
sure from the insulating material behind. 



INSULATION 



171 



When the cohimns are omitted and the retaining wall 
is continuous from one end of the building to the other 
the anchors should be placed not over six feet apart. 




FIG. 



9S — DETAIL -QF DOUBLE WALL- 
INSULATION. 



-GRANULATED CORK 



The brick should be laid up in Portland cement mortar 
and the wall placed flush with the outside face of the con- 
crete floor beams. 



172 



INSULATION 



The space between the cokinins and the outside wall 
is insulated with cork-board from four to six inches in thick- 
ness. This is done to bring the columns nearer to the wall 
and still have sufficient insulation between them to prevent 
heat transmission. 



b^\CK W^LL- 
CL^\E.NT MOWAH- 

zxom. bOKHb 

CLMLNT MOCTMI 
PL/X^TLa 




FIG. 99— DETAIL, OF BRICK WALL INSULATION. 



When the building wall is of concrete skeleton con- 
struction, the cork between the inside and outside columns 
may be placed in the wood forms and the concrete poured 
afterwards. 

The wall must be painted on the inside with asphaltum 
or other waterproof paint in order to protect the insulation 
from dampness. This should be carefully done as it is 



INSULATION 



173 



practically the only means of effectively preventing the 
moisture from entering the insulation. 

Openings should be left in the cellar, about every eight 
feet, so that all loose mortar or debris which is dropped 
between the walls can be removed. 

In buildings of ordinary height, or from three to five 
stories, the insulating material can be poured from the top, 
after the walls are built. 




FIG. 100— ERECTING CORK BOARD INSULATION ON BRICK WALLS. 



The insulation will bridge itself, at times, at some point 
above the solid fill and to prevent this a brick should be 
tied to a long string^ and kept moving along the wall until 
the filling is done. 

This type of wall insulation is one of the earliest in use 
and is now almost discarded for the more efficient and eco- 
nomical type illustrated by Figure 99. 



174 



INSULATION 



The additional room taken up by the inside wall and 
the wide, hollow space, becomes too wasteful in a building 
which occupies high-priced property. There is also danger 
of the inside wall being damaged in case of fire causing the 
insulating material to run out from the floors above. 

Wall Insulation 

In Figures 99 and 100 are illustrated the usual method 
of applying cork board insulation to brick walls. The first 
layer of cork board is applied with Portland cement mortar 
and set so that the vertical joints are broken. 



GLMLNT ^AOtJ,T^:ir 

acoox. bo^Q-D 
PU^ATLa — — 




PIG. 101- 



-DETAIL OP INSULATED PARTITION — CORK BOARDS 
ERECTED IN CEMENT MORTAR. 



The second layer is cemented to the first and placed 
SO that all joints between the two layers of cork board are 
broken. The cork is nailed together with hickory meat- 
skewers, driven diagonally through the outside boards and 
into the first. The insulation is plastered and given a hard, 
sanitary finish. 
Insulated Partitions 

In Figure 101 is illustrated an insulated partition built 
of two thicknesses of cork boards cemented together with 



INSULATION 



175 



Yo-inch Portland cement mortar and finished on both sides 
with cement plaster applied on galvanized metal laths. 

The joints between the two layers of cork should be 
broken both ways and the boards nailed together with 
hickory meat-skewers. 

Solid cork partitions built in this manner and placed 
against the columns of the building, can be erected as high 



PL/\5TE_IL- 



2"COG.K- BCVXao 

CLMLNT MOIr^^D. 

5COI2.K- tOMlD — 
PLACET LC 




FIG. 102 — DETAIL, OF INSULATION PASSING THROUGH FLOOR. 



as fifteen feet and require no additional bracing. They take 
up less room thanr any other type of construction and are 
more nearly fireproof than partitions erected with wood 
studding. The metal lath may be omitted to reduce the 
cost of construction, but should be used in all first-class 
work. 



176 



INSULATION 



In Figure 102 is illustrated a solid cork partition used 
between the freezer and the cold storage rooms. 

This partition is continuous from one end of the room 
to the other and is continued up through the floor from the 
story below. The columns and floor beams have been 
split in two to allow the partition to pass through. 




FIG. 103- 



-DETAIL OF INSULATED PARTITION — CORK WITH 
WOOD STUDDING. 



There is no contact between the beams and columns 
in the two kinds of storage with the exception of one 
anchor-bolt at the floor line and one in the middle of the 
columns. 

The partition is erected with the same materials as 
described with Figure 101. 



INSULATION 



177 



The partition shown in Figure 103 is built of two inch 
cork boards nailed between 2x4-inch studding, spaced 36 
inches apart and plastered on both sides with Portland 
cement mortar over galvanized metal laths. 

The studding is first put up and nailed to the 2x3-inch 
sill laid on the concrete floor and to the 2x4-inch plate at 
the ceiling line. 

The cork boards are placed lengthwise between the 



A" TILL 



CLMLNT rAOB-TAH.- 
S" COCK, bOACD 
C LM LN T ,NA Oi2.T/^iS,- 
E"COC.I<^ bOAG-D 




1 
FIG. 104— DETAIL OF INSULATED PARTITION— CORK AND TILE. 



studding and toe-nailed at each end with three-inch gal- 
vanized nails. ) 

This partition is used between cold storage rooms of 
nearly equal temperature or to enclose rooms carried at 
50° Fahr. 

Where the partitions are to be used temporarily and 
are to be removed at some future time, the plastering should 
be omitted and the cork boards covered on both sides with 
waterproof insulating paper and finished with yellow pine 



178 



INSULATION 



or hardwood boards, painted on the back, and varnished on 
the outside to keep out moisture. 

In Figure 104 is illustrated an insulated partition built 




"QUMLTLIL 
HOUND 



-■z"*a:'3\ll 



-PL^5TLIL 
-2"^4:':!>TUD^ 16" G.TOG. 

-(jUanulmld od^k filling 

r— WATLB.PE.OOF PAP LB 

■7/6' D. 7^ M. bOA&D^ 



iit 



:^^:::---::i' 



PL/\N 



FIG. 105 — DETAIL OF INSULATED PARTITION— GRANULATED 
CORK FILLING BETWEEN STUDDING. 



INSULATION 



179 



of 4-inch tile with two thicknesses of cork boards on the 
cold storage side. 

This partition is recommended for use in rooms with 
high ceilings, fifteen feet or over, where fireproof construc- 
tion is necessary. 

The cork is put up in Portland cement mortar in the 
same manner as described for the insulation of brick walls. 
The tile should be plastered on the outside to give a better 




FIG. 106— TWO LAYERS OF CORK BOARD ERECTED AGAINST 
WOOD STUDDING. 



appearance and effectively close up kny void in the joints. 

Where the floor construction is strong enough to sup- 
port the load, four inches of brick can be used instead of 
the tile. 

In Figures 105 and 106 is illustrated a partition often 
used in wholesale markets where wood construction is used. 

This partition is easily put up and practically as effi- 
cient as if made of four inches of sohd cork. It can be used 



180 



INSULATION 



to advantage where the partition is required to support 
the load from the ceiUng construction above. 

The 2x4-inch studding is put up on an 18-inch centre 
and toe-nailed at the top and bottom to a 2x4-inch plate 



2"x4;'j,TUD:i 
2-o-A,PMrr 




TO bL JL^LLD 
WITH HOT 
ASPHALT 



VIM -a 






FIG. 107 — DETAIL OF INSULATED PARTITION — CORK V7ITH 
WOOD STUDDING. 



and sill. The studs are covered on the outside with water- 
proof paper and %-inch dressed and matched boards. 



INSULATION 181 

The cold storage side is insulated with 2-inch cork 
board nailed with galvanized wire nails and the space be- 
tween the studs is filled with granulated cork. 

The finish on the cork board should be of plaster or 
glazed tile, if the floor of the building is rigid enough to 
prevent cracking of the finish, due to vibration under 
trucking or moving loads. 

Where partitions of this type are built one above the 
other, from the basement and up to the first and second 
floors, the studding should be continuous and not supported 
on the wooden joists at each floor level. 

When built in this manner, the partition will not sag 
with the floor or pull away from the ceiling level, which is 
a common occurrence where the partition is supported 
directly on the floor construction. 

In Figure 107 is illustrated an insulated partition with 
two thicknesses of 2-inch cork board placed between 2x4- 
inch studding and covered on both sides with waterproof 
paper and by %-inch dressed and matched boards. The 
joints between the studding and the cork board niust.be 
carefully sealed with asphalt to prevent the passage of air 
and moisture through the joints. 

This partition is not recommended for permanent work 
unless a great deal of care is taken with the erection and 
all joints are carefully sealed up. It has the advantage of 
requiring less space than the partition shown in Figure 101 
and can be used where a sdhd cork partition is impractical. 
The galvanized iron covering shown on both sides of 
the partition at the floor level line is put on to protect the 
woodwork against water on the floor and to prevent rats 
from gnawing through from the outside. 
Ceiling Insulation 

In concrete buildings where the ceilings are insulated 
with cork board, the insulation should be made a part of 
the building construction and not put up after the build- 
ing is erected. 

There is a decided advantage when the cork is laid 
in the forms and the concrete floor is poured on top, as 



182 



INSULATION 



shown in Figure 108. The two materials are then integral 
and a better job is obtained at a smaller cost of labor. The 
work can be more closely inspected during the construc- 
tion, which is always important where first-class work is 
desired. The cork can be laid in the forms by ordinary 
labor if the work is done under the direction of an experi- 
enced foreman. 




FIG. 108— INSULATING CONCRETE CEILING BY PLACING CORK 
BOARD IN THE FORMS BEFORE CONCRETE IS POURED. 



When the insulation is applied on the ceiling after the 
building is completed, the cork board must be put up from 
a scaffold placed on the floor below and this requires ex- 
perienced and high priced labor. The work is done under 
conditions requiring artiflcial light by which only a super- 
ficial inspection can be given to the materials and work- 



INSULATION 



183 



manship. In Figure 109 is illustrated an insulated ceiling 
after the wood forms have been removed, and with the cork 
ready for plastering. 

In Figure 110 is illustrated a concrete ceiling insulated 
with two thicknesses of two-inch cork board and finished 
with Portland cement. The framework is first erected and 
made four and one-half inches deeper than would otherwise 
be necessary, and the beam boxes are made of a size which 
will hold the insulation on all three sides of the beam. 

The first layer of cork is placed over the form boards 




FIG. 109 — CORK BOARD ON CEILING READY FOR PLASTERING. 



and laid so that all transverse joints a^re broken. Over this 
the second course of cork board is laid in i/^-inch Portland 
cement mortar and nailed to the underlying cork with 
hickory meat skewers. 

The boards must be placed so that all joints in the two 
courses of cork are broken. The reinforcing steel is then 
placed on top of the cork and the concrete fioor poured 
to the required depth. 



184 



INSULATION 



When the floor has hardened enough to permit the re- 
moval of the forms, the cork ceihng is plastered from be- 
low. The strength of the bond between cork board and 
concrete erected in this manner, has been tested and the 
result showed that it required an average of 344 pounds 
per square foot to break the bond between the two 
materials. 

The author has employed this method of construction 
in many instances and always found it satisfactory and 
economical. 



-a"ooji,.<. bOAD-D 

-CLMLNT MOBTAQ. 
-e"COB.K, bOA>E.D 




FIG. 110— DETAIL OP INSULATION ON CONCRETE CEILING. 



Precautions should be taken, however, to avoid any 
rough handling or dropping of the reinforcing steel on the 
insulation at the time the steel is laid, otherwise the cement 
mortar between the two layers of cork board might easily 
be broken, causing the bottom layer of cork to drop off 
after the form work has been removed. 

The ceiling insulation illustrated by Figure 111 is fre- 
quently used in buildings of ordinary wood construction or 
where an old building of this type is insulated for cold stor- 
age purposes. 



INSULATION 



185 



To the underside of the floor, or ceiHng joist, is nailed 
a course of yg-inch dressed and matched boards, either 
hemlock or spruce, and to this is applied two layers of 
waterproof insulating paper laid with a 3-inch lap and all 
joints sealed with hot asphalt. 

The first thickness of cork board is securely nailed to 
the ceiling with large head galvanized barbed wire nails 
and erected so that all transverse joints are broken. The 
second layer of cork is put up with Portland cement mortar 
or hot asphalt and additionally secured by being nailed to 
the first course. 



-E"COII.t<. hON^lD 
-©-LAYLII^ Vv'^TLD-P!i.CX)^ PAPL.P. 
-7&' D.?;M. bOA^^D-:^ 
■BVis"Joi>;iT^- iG"C.TO G. 




FIG. Ill — DETAIL OF CEILING INSULATION. 



Ail joints must be broken and made tight between the 
two layers of cork. A finish of Portland cement mortar is 
generally applied over the cork. The objection to this 
method of applying insulation is the probability of moisture 
collecting between the joists (where there is a floor above). 
There being no means of ventilation, the lumber will be 
soon attacked by wood destroying fungi. 

It is therefore advisable to place the cork on the floor 
above, when this can be done, and leave the joists exposed 
on the underside. 



186 



INSULATION 
FLOOR INSULATION 



Cellar Floor 

Where cellar floors are insulated (Figure 112) the 
excavation should be carried down far enough to allow for 
an 8-inch cinder fill being laid over the entire floor area. 

When the ground is water-soaked and badly drained, 
it is best to place drain tiles under the cinder fill and con- 
nect the tile to the sewer or to a cesspool in which the over- 
flow pipe connects with the sewer. 

Over the cinders should be laid a base floor of 3-inch 




'. s-tiNDtyi'. rii_;t:' ■...■.•.■-•. '. • 
■"■■"'• W^'^'. ■-'■■■• -•'-'-■ 

^^=*^4-DD,MN TILL 

Two LJVYLa<5 ■S."COC,-^ BOA-CD 
L-MD IN HOT ^c^PHALJT 

"3'CONC-e.EJTL F-L0012. TJ^E-INP-OQ-CLD 
WITH WICL NLTT1NG.-1"CLMLNT jriNOH 
3COMCCC_TL FLOOa 
FIG. 112— DETAIL OP CELLAR FLOOR INSULATION. - 



concrete which should be carefully graded to all drain out- 
lets. The concrete floor is then mopped with hot asphalt 
and the first layer of cork board put down while the asphalt 
is still hot. 

In a first-class job the joints between the cork are 
poured full with asphalt in order to fill all possible voids 
between the cork and the concrete base. This will require 
a lot of asphalt, unless the floor has been evenly graded. 

The second layer of cork board is laid in the same 
manner as the first and the joints between the two layers 
should be broken. 



INSULATION 



187 



The top surface of the insulation is given a mop coat 
of asphalt or waterproofing material before the concrete 
wearing floor is put down. This is made from three to four 
inches thick which includes the 1-inch wearing surface of 
cement mortar. 

The concrete is mixed in the proportion of one part 
of Portland cement to two parts of sand and four parts 
of crushed rock i/2-inch size. 

The mortar for the finish should be of one part cement 
to two parts of torpedo sand or granite screening. In order 




HOT Ai)PH£>.LT 

HOT AOPt-IA.L.T 

JbtX5NCC.LTL FLOOa aUNTOCCLD 
LVyiTM Wlia. NLTTlNCj. r CLN\LNT HNIiH 

FIG. 113— DETAIL OF FLOOR — 4" CORK BOARD WITH CONCRETE 

FINISH. 



to prevent the concrete from cracking, it should be rein- 
forced either with i/^-inch steel rods, wire cloth or poultry- 
netting, laid one inch below the top surface. 

In Figure 113 is illustrated 4-inch cork insulation laid 
over a, reinforced concrete floor in the same manner as de- 
scribed for cellar floors. 

In Figure 114 is illustrated an insulated floor with wood 
finish. The cork is laid in asphalt in the same manner as 
described for cellar floors, except that wooden nailing strips 
are inserted in the top layer of cork. The strips are made 
of 2x4-inch yellow pine or other hard wood which will hold 
nails firmly. 

They are spaced 12 inches apart where the wearing 
floor is of ^-inch material and 24 inches apart with 1%- 



188 



INSULATION 



inch, or heavier, flooring. This spacing allows one or two 
sheets of cork to be placed between the nailing strips with- 




-CONCE.LTE_ FLCOR. 
-fOPHf^UT 
-S'-COE-K, bOf^CX) 
-/X5PHAL.T 
-2"C012.t BOA,E.D 
-S"»A" NWUNG £TB,1P.'°'*' 
-AAPHA.L.T 
-FINI5Hk.D FLOOa 

FIG. 114 — DETAIL OF FLOOR — FOUR INCHES OF CORK BOARD 
WITH WOOD WEARING FLOOR. 



out cutting the cork. The top of the insulation should be 
mopped with asphalt or covered with waterproof paper 
before the finished floor is laid. 

Roof Insulation 

The method of insulating the roof illustrated by Figure 




-COMPOSITION TJ-OOFINQ 
FIG. 115 — DETAIL OF ROOF INSULATION. 



115 is now generally used in buildings where the top floor 
is used as cold storage. It eliminates the air space be- 



INSULATION 189 

tween the roof and the ceilmg of the top floor and reduces 
the height of the outside walls. 

The construction of the roof must be similar to that 
of the floors below and the wall insulation is extended up 
to meet the insulation on the roof. 

The thickness of cork should not be less than six 
inches, and over freezer rooms eight inches of cork is fre- 
quently used. 

The cork is laid on the roof slab in hot asphalt with 
the joints broken between the two layers and all voids 
filled solid with asphalt and cork dust. 

The top surface is mopped as soon as the work is fin- 
ished, in order to protect the cork from rain water until 
the finished roof is applied. 

Insulation on Roofs to Prevent Condensation of Moisture 
on Ceilings. 

Concrete roofs will sweat in cold weather due to con- 
densation of moisture on the ceiling. When the warm air 
of the room comes in contact with the cold roof surface, it 
gives up its moisture, which forms in drops of water on the 
ceiling. This condition is objectionable in packing house 
buildings where the top floor is heated, and the roof surface 
should be covered with sufficient insulating material to pre- 
vent the concrete from being chilled. Two inches of im- 
pregnated cork board will be sufficient to overcome this 
trouble in an ordinary climate. The cork should be laid 
over the roof surface in hot asphalt and the finished roof 
put down over the insulation. 

Where the roof construction is of wood, the insulation 
will not be required, if the roof boards are 1%-inches in 
thickness and are covered with a felt a,nd gravel roofing. 
Brine Tank Insulation 

In Figure 116 is illustrated the usual method of insulat- 
ing a steel brine tank. The tank is located in the corner 
of a room and set 12 inches away from the walls, leaving a 
space on two sides which is filled with granulated cork. The 
remaining two sides are insulated by building a partition 
12 inches away from the tank and filling this space with 



190 



INSULATION 



granulated cork. The floor under the tank is insulated with 
two layers of 3-inch impregnated cork board laid in hot 
asphalt. The tank is placed directly on top of the insula- 
tion in a bed of asphalt one-eighth of an inch thick. 

The partition is built of 2x4-inch studding set 24 inches 
on centres and covered on the outside with one thickness 
of D and M sheathing, laid horizontally and nailed to the 



'A 

iA 



% 






I 



4e^ 



^i 



j2"QRANULATED 
COCK." 

A^PhA,l_T _ 
CO^TINC;I■ 



^ 



/TANK; 



2 LKVEC3 ^ft-D.B.M. BOABDJ 
'WATEBRaOOFlNQ BETWEtN 



^ 



■2V4' 



/ 



■TANKs 



1£l 



IE 



ZV^LVT) 5" IMT2EQNATED 
COGl<. BOARD LAID IN 
HOT ^3PHALT 

xcwow 



PLAN 






3 



e"x4-"5TUD:5 £4"C.TO c. 
%' D. 6^ M. BOACDO HOBIZQNTALLY 
^ PAPER. 
L^iB'VS" Y.R BOARD3 VERTICALLY 



FIG. 116 — DETAIL OF ICE TANK INSULATION. 



studs with galvanized nails. Over this is placed a layer 
of waterproof paper and an outside covering of yellow pine 
boards, 78^3 inches. These are set vertically and should 
be painted on the back before being put up. 

The brick walls should be mopped with asphalt or 
coated with a waterproof paint before the tank is put in 
place. 



INSULATION 



191 



The insulation should be covered at the top of the tank 
with two thicknesses of yellow pine boards with water- 
proofing between them, so as to keep the moisture away 
from the insulation. 

Around the ice freezing tanks, where there is much 
spilling of water in connection with the ice-making, there 
is frequently trouble from water leaking down into the 



^^ 4'U" :5TUD3 36" C.TOC: 
4."GRANULMED CORt\- 
E"C01?><v BCARD 

-^3PH^uT 



^ 



1 



E"CORK BOM2D NMLED 
'WITH WOOD 3CEWER3 

CEMENT PLANTER. — » 

FLOOR LINE '\ 



^2x4-"' 



^' 



DO ION 



E"a4." 



'TANK. 



2 LAvVECO 5" IMPREGNATED 

COC^ EOW2D LMD IN 

HOT ASPHALT 



PLAN 



.-V.wl,^,.-.^,^ 



FIG. 117— DETAIL OP ICE TANK INSULATION. 



insulation. If the top cover is properly put on, this will 
not occur. 

The joints at the wall line should be caulked with pitch 
and oakum and flashed with galvanized iron and the cover 
set so that the water will drain away from the wall and 
back into the tank. 

In Figure 117 is illustrated another method of insulat- 
ing an ice freezing tank. 

The floor is laid in the same manner as described be- 
fore and extends eight inches beyond the sides of the tank. 



192 INSULATION 

After the tank is set in place and riveted up, the insula- 
tion of the sides is started by placing 4x4-inch studs against 
the tank, on 36-inch centres. The studs are toe-nailed to 
a 2x4-inch sill, laid on the floor, 2-inch cork board is then 
nailed to the studding, with galvanized wire nails, and a 
second layer of cork board apphed to the first layer with 
hot asphalt and securely nailed with wood skewers, driven 
diagonally through both layers of cork. The outside of 
the insulation is covered with Portland cement plaster. The 
space between the studding is filled with granulated cork 
and covered at the top of the tank with a wooden cover. 
This is made of two thicknesses of yellow pine boards, with 
waterproof paper and asphalt between. 

A frequent mistake in insulating tanks is to make the 
thickness of the insulation under the tank insufficient for 
the requirements. Brine in freezing tanks will average 
12° and 14° Fahr., and at this temperature the cold will 
quickly penetrate into the underlying soil unless the insula- 
tion is sufficient to prevent the leakage. 

A striking example of such loss of refrigeration was 
discovered in an old ice factory in Chicago, where the insu- 
lation under the tank consisted of 3-inch imported, im- 
pregnated cork and 1 inch of pitch. After the tank had 
been in service for eight years, it became necessary to make 
excavations for an adjoining building and it was then found 
that the ground was frozen for 17 feet below the bottom 
of the tank. 

In Figure 118 is illustrated the laying of cork under an 
ice freezing tank. 

Pipe Covering 

Brine headers should be insulated when they run out- 
side of cold storage rooms, otherwise their efficiency is 
partly lost in conveying the chilled brine to the cold storage 
rooms. It is also necessary to insulate the ammonia gas 
headers from the rooms back to the machine. 

The usual method of insulating is to put on a sectional 
covering of cork or hair felt, which can be obtained in 



INSULATION 



193 



sizes to fit any diameter of pipe and fitting. Care sliould 
be exercised in applying the insulation; small air leaks 
mean rapid destruction of the insulation at that point. 
When the outside air comes in contact with the cool pipe 
it deposits moisture which freezes on the pipe and the ice 
forming under the insulation will, in a short time, force the 
covering off entirely. 




FIG. 118 — LAYING CORK INSULATION UNDER FREEZING TANK. 



The hangers should be applied on the outside of the 
covering and there should always be a piece of galvanized 
sheet iron next to the insulation. If the hanger touches 
the pipe, the covering becomes damp around it, due to 
precipitation of pioisture from the air, which, in time, is 
sure to ruin that section. When the piping is being put 
up before the covering can be applied, it is always best to 
put the hanger around a block of wood of the same thick- 



194 INSULATION 

ness as the covering and remove the wood as the pipes are 
covered. 

Cork covering for brine and ammonia headers is made 
from one to four inches in thickness and coated inside and 
out with a mineral rubber finish. The 4-inch thickness is 
used in low temperature brine lines to freezers and the 
two and three-inch thickness for ammonia gas and brine 
pipes, in ordinary cold storage work (Fig. 119). 

The covering is put on with waterproof cement between 
the joints and wound every two feet with soft copper wire.' 

Hair-felt insulation is frequently used and will give sat- 
isfaction when properly applied. \ 

Two or three layers of one inch thickness are wrapped! 
around the pipe after this has been coated with hot asphalt 




: FIG. 119— CORK COVERING FOR PIPES. 

or pitch and each layer is separately wired with drawn 
copper wire and covered with waterproof paper. 

The outside layer should be finished with a canvas 
cover, laid spirally and coated with an elastic waterproof 
paint. 

In Figure 120 is illustrated the insulating of refrigerat- 
ing pipes laid underground. 

The trench is excavated to the required depth and half 
of a split drain tile laid on the ground and filled with a mix- 
ture of granulated cork and hot asphalt. The pipes are 
then laid in the tile and covered over with the same mixture 
before the top cover is put on. • 

All joints must be carefully sealed with Portland 
cement mortar and made watertight. 

The tile should be vitrified, salt-glazed, sewer tile and 
large enough to allow for a four-inch covering all around 
the pipe. 



INSULATION 



195 



Where the underground mains carry brine at a very 
low temperature, it is better to use the compressed instead 
of the granulated cork covering, in order to reduce the 
size of the tile. 

The same method of insulation can be used and a 
2-inch plank-box substituted for the tile. The wood should 
be coated with creosote or other wood preservative and 
lined inside with waterproof paper, where the work is of a 
permanent nature. 




^LWLH TILL 
b^lNL HLADLli:) 



O^ANUL^TLD CO^IC MIALD 
WITH HOT ASPHALT 




FIG. 120— METHOD OF INSULATING PIPE UNDERGROUND. 



Lumber in the Insulation 

Where the building is of fireproof construction, lum- 
ber i^ not needed as a part of the insulation, except in 
temporary work. 

It is principally in packing houpe coolers and in mill 
constructed cold storage buildings that wood is used, to 
any extent, in the insulation, either as support for other 
insulating materials or as an outside finish. 

All wood is not equally well suited to cold storage use 
and preference should be given to lumber cut from wood 
which is practically odorless, such as white pine, spruce 
or hemlock. 



196 INSULATION 

Yellow pine contains too much pitch to be used in cold 
storage rooms, since the odor would taint many of the 
goods held in storage. 

All exposed woodwork should be painted or varnished 
to keep it odorless. If the wood is left in its natural state 
it readily absorbs the odors of the room which would be 
detrimental to many products, such as milk, cream, butter 
and eggs. 

Painting also prevents the wood from swelling or 
shrinking when there is a change in the hydrometric state 
of the atmosphere in the room. 

Swelling of the wood should be guarded against, par- 
ticularly in packing house coolers and pipe lofts, where 
there is a great deal of moisture in the air. 

The lumber used in the construction of air ducts and 
partitions is brought to the building in a kiln-dried state 
and put up with close joints and frequently left unpainted. 
Partitions erected in this manner will swell out of shape as 
soon as the coolers are in use and invariably have to be 
taken down and rebuilt. Two coats of paint or varnish 
would have protected the wood from moisture and greatly 
improved the appearance as well as prolonging the life of 
the woodwork. 

Lumber cut from yellow pine and Oregon fir is more 
durable than the softer and less resinous woods, and can, 
therefore, be used to better advantage in places where 
there would be no objection to the resinous odor of the 
wood, as, for example, ice storage rooms, pickle cellars 
and covering for ice tank insulation. 

The woodwork should be finished in varnish on hard 
oil, as it contains too much pitch to take paint well. 

Insulating Paper 

Paper is used in insulation work to prevent the passage 
of air and moisture through the cracks and joints in the 
insulation. It is only employed where these defects are not 
sealed by other means, such as asphalt paint or cement 
binder. 



INSULATION 197 

Only waterproof paper, which is especially made for 
insulating purposes, should be used. The standard brands 
are all put up in rolls 36 inches wide, containing either 500 
or 1000 square feet. 

Tarred or saturated papers are not suited for cold 
storage, as they emit a strong odor which will taint the 
goods in storage. 

The paper should be applied in as long lengths as it is 
convenient to put up and the joints should be lapped at 
least two inches and sealed with hot asphalt. 

When the paper is torn by careless handling it should 
be replaced or another layer applied over the damaged part. 
Plastering on Insulation 

The exposed surfaces of the insulation should be plas- 
tered unless it is covered with tile or other sanitary finish. 

Portland cement plaster is extensively used as a finish 
on account of its strength and great hardness. It is more 
resistant to moisture than ordinary lime cement, is quickly 
and easily mixed and the cost is reasonable. 

Mixing 

The mortar is made of one part of Portland cement to 
two parts of sand and a bucket full of lime putty should 
be added to each barrel of cement. 

The sand should be clean, sharp torpedo sand, screened 
and mixed in equal proportions with ordinary plastering 
sand. The mortar must be, used immediately after it is 
mixed, as it sets quickly and cannot be retempered. 

A'p'plying 

I'wo coats of plaster approximately one-half inch thick 
should be applied. The first coat is put on one-quarter inch 
thick, rough-scratched and left to s^t. After 24 hours, or 
before the scratch coat is dried out, the second coat, is 
applied and troweled to a smooth, even finish or fioated to 
a sand finish, as may be desired. 

Hair Crocks 

The tendency of Portland cement to contract in the 
setting will cause the plastering to crack after it is finished. 



198 INSULATION 

To overcome this defect, the surface of the finish coat 
should be scored and divided into 4-foot squares. The plas- 
tering will then crack along the score-marks and these can 
be filled up with neat cement after the plastering is thor- 
oughly dried out. 

The scoring should be done with a straight edge after 
the plastering begins to harden and always the same day 
as the plastering is applied. 
Asbestos Fibers in Plastering 

Scoring of the plastering is frequently objected to on 
account of the checker-board appearance of walls and ceil- 
ing. The plastering can be prevented from cracking by 
adding asbestos fiber to the mortar in the same manner as 
cattle hair is added to ordinary lime plaster. 

The author has used the following mixture for two- 
coat work with very satisfactory results: Two cubic feet 
of Portland cement to four cubic feet of sand and two 
shovels full of asbestos fiber. To this is added one-half 
bucket of slaked lime. 

The asbestos fiber will tend to lighten the color of the 
plastering so that it appears as a medium grey instead of 
the very dark grey color of the ordinary Portland cement 
plaster. 
Keene's White Cement Finish 

White cement and white sand should be used where a 
better grade of finish is desired. There are many excellent 
makes of white Portland cement on the market, but none 
has given as good results in cold storage work as the im- 
ported Keene's cement. This cement is a plaster imported 
from England and produced by recalcining plaster of paris 
after soaking it in a saturated solution of alum. 

This material is very hard and can be troweled to a 
highly polished surface. It is extensively used in wholesale 
markets, sales coolers and places where a white, sanitary 
finish is desired, without resorting to enameled paints or 
tile. It will not disintegrate in moist rooms and will remain 
white in color. It is applied as a skim coat over two coats 
of Portland cement mortar. The second coat is troweled 



INSULATION 199 

to an even, uniform surface, and keyed for the finish coat. 
This is appHed very thin and carefully worked with a steel 
trowel as soon as the cement begins to set. It can be 
polished afterwards with a felt rag and made to look like 
artificial marble. 

The finish is mixed in the proportion of five parts of 
Keene's cement to one part of white sand or marble dust. 

Lath 

Metal lath is used to stiffen insulated partitions built 
of cork board. The lath should be galvanized and securely 
fastened to the cork with galvanized staples, driven about 
five inches apart. 

Only lath which is stiff and rigid should be used, and 
for that reason expanded metal lath is extensively em- 
ployed. This lath does not require stretching and can be 
fastened directly to the partition. The standard sheets are 
18 inches wide and eight feet long and the size of the mesh 
is 3/16x11/4 inches and i/4xli4 inches. The former is 
best adapted for cement plaster. 



CHAPTER XVI 
REFRIGERATION 

Introduction 

The science of refrigeration is too broad and compre- 
hensive, both in its theoretical and practical aspects, to be 
given more than a short resume, in a book of this character. 

There are many excellent text-books available for 
those who wish to give the subject a careful study. 

This chapter will be devoted to a brief description of 
the two types of refrigerating machines, which are in com- 
mon use in packing houses and cold storage plants. A few 
practical rules will be given regarding- the amount of refrig- 
eration and piping required in this class of buildings. 

The selection of the refrigerating machine best 
adapted to the conditions under which it is to operate, and 
the work to be done by the machine, are matters that 
should be carefully considered. 

All commercially practical refrigerating machines are 
merely devices for reclaiming the liquid chemical, which 
has been evaporated to a gas in the cooling chamber. 

Anhydrous ammonia is one of the principal refrig- 
erants, and for purposes of economy must be changed back 
to a liquid state, in order that it may again and again be 
evaporated, and in so doing, continuously extract heat from 
the body to be cooled. Therefore, a machine which eco- 
nomically gathers the spent gas from the refrigerating 
chamber, and reduces it to a condition where it can be 
used again, is a practical refrigerating machine. 

There are two principal types of ammonia cooling 
machines in use today producing refrigeration for commer- 
cial purposes. They are known as the ammonia absorption 
and the ammonia compression systems, the names being 



REFRIGERATION 201 

derived from the method of operation pecuhar to each type. 

To comprehend how refrigeration is actually obtained 
by either system, it is necessary to know something of the 
characteristics of ammonia. If pure anhydrous ammonia 
liquid at, say 75° F., and at 127 pounds gauge pressure, be 
drawn out into an open vessel, it will boil and evaporate 
very rapidly until the temperature of the liquid ammonia 
is reduced to about 28° below zero. This means that at 
atmospheric pressure, the boiling temperature of ammonia 
is more than 100° below the normal summer temperature. 
The boiling away, at first, is very violent, until the evapora- 
tion cools the liquid itself; any subsequent boiling is caused 
by heat from adjacent sources. Had the ammonia liquid 
been evaporated in a closed vessel at 15 pounds gauge 
pressure, the same result would have been obtained, except 
that the evaporation of the liquid would have reduced its 
temperature only to zero degrees Fahr. and the resultant 
gas would have twice the weight per cubic foot of the gas 
evaporated at atmospheric pressure. On the other hand, had 
the ammonia liquid been evaporated in a vessel under a 
partial vacuum, the boiling point would have been lower 
and the resultant gas lighter per cubic foot. 

So far, we have considered refrigeration, in degree 
only, by the evaporation of ammonia. Let us now consider 
refrigeration by the volume and make some comparisons. 

Almost any volatile liquid may be used as a refrigerant. 
Water, though it boils, in open vessels, at 212° Fahr. ordi- 
narily, will, if subjected to a vacuum of 29'^ boil violently 
away about one-third of its volume and the balance will 
freeze to ice. Most people have experienced the cooling 
effect produced by evaporating froi|i the hand, high-test 
gasoline or grain alcohol, which is mild refrigeration on a 
very small scale. More heat is required to change the tem- 
perature of water^ through a determined range of tempera- 
ture, than other liquids commonly known. Therefore, the 
heat-energy required to raise or lower a pound of water one 
degree Fahr. at its maximum density, is used as a standard 
and is known as one British Thermal Unit. To change a 



202 REFRIGERATION 

pound of water at 212° F., in an open vessel, to a pound of 
steam at 212° F. requires 970.4 B. T. U. To freeze a pound 
of water at 32° F. to a pound of ice at 32° requires approxi- 
mately 144 B. T. U. 

Water is plentiful in all localities, but it is not a desir- 
able medium of refrigeration. While it requires approxi- 
mately 1000 B. T. U. to evaporate a pound of water to a 
pound of vapor, it only requires 144 B. T. U. to change a 
pound of water to a pound of ice. Other objections are, the 
low evaporating pressure required to reduce its tempera- 
ture and the further fact that it freezes at 32° Fahr., elim- 
inates water as a desirable refrigerant. 

Ammonia, on the other hand, is a most satisfactory 
refrigerant. At fifteen pounds pressure, it evaporates at 
a temperature low enough for most commercial purposes 
and every pound of liquid at 75° F., evaporated to a gas at 
15 pounds gauge pressure, takes 480 B. T. U. net from the 
refrigerated chamber. 

All cooling machines are rated in tons of refrigerating 
effect, based on a 24-hour day. Therefore, a one-ton refrig- 
erating machine should be able to perform the same service 
in removing heat, in a day of 24 hours, as would one ton 
of ice, if completely melted in that time. 

If to freeze one pound of water requires 144 B. T. U., 
a ton will require 2000 X 144 B. T. U., or 288,000 B. T. U., 
or at the rate of 12,000 B. T. U. per hour and 200 B. T. U. 
per minute. For example, if one pound of pure ammonia 
evaporated requires net 480 B. T. U., and 12,000 B. T. U. 
per hour equals refrigeration at the rate of one ton per day, 

then — 7^-r — =25 pounds of pure ammonia must be handled 

480 
by the refrigerating machine per hour. 

Compression Machines 

The compression machine depends almost entirely on 
mechanical energy to reclaim spent gas. As the name im- 
plies, the compression system employs a compressor, which 
is merely a well-designed device for pumping a gas and 
compressing it to a higher pressure. 



REFRIGERATION 203 

Refrigeration is a relative term for temperatures below 
normal and is usually considered as the production of cold. 
Actually it is the extraction of heat from the body to be 
refrigerated. To secure low temperatures, low evaporating 
pressures in the ammonia chamber must be maintained. 
The compressor pump must carry away from the expan- 
sion chamber, ammonia gas as rapidly as it is formed, in 
order to maintain the necessary low pressure and secure 
the desired refrigerating temperature. To return the spent 
gas to a liquid state, the ammonia gas pump compresses 
the gas to a much higher pressure, changing some of the 
latent to sensible heat. The hot ammonia gas is then deliv- 
ered to a purifying device, usually an oil separator, to 
remove any traces of the oil which was used in the cylinder 
for lubrication. From the separator, the pure, dry ammonia 
gas passes into the condenser. The condenser is a closed 
vessel or system of pipe coils, arranged to be cooled by a 
continuous supply of fresh, cold water. The heat which 
the machine draws from the refrigerated body, together 
with the heat of compression, is transferred to the cold 
water on the condenser which leaves as hot water. The 
compressor, by delivering a steady flow of gas into the con- 
denser, raises the pressure to a point where, under the 
combined influence of pressure and the temperature pro- 
duced by the cooling water, the gas liquefles and is again 
ready to be conducted to the^ cold storage rooms or evap- 
orating chamber and produce more refrigerating effect. 

Experience has demonstrated that an ammonia gas 
compressor should have a pumping capacity of 7500 cubic 
inches displacement per minute for each rated ton of refrig- 
erating capacity. These dimensions are based on drawing 
gas from the evaporating chamber at 15 pounds gauge 
pressure and delivering it at 170 pounds to the condenser. 
By varying these- conditions, or the speed of the com- 
pressor pump, the capacity may be varied. 

The power required to operate a compression machine 
and produce a ton of refrigerating effect will vary with the 
size, condition and design of the machine, from one and 



204 REFRIGERATION 

one-third to two horsepower per ton of refrigeratmg capac- 
ity. It is evident that a compression refrigerating machine, 
to operate economically, should be an efficient gas pump. 
Since the rated refrigerating capacity of a compressor de- 
pends on pumping a specific volume of gas per minute 
of a definite weight and delivering it to the condenser, and 
the specific volume of gas at zero pressure is twice that at 
15 pounds, it is evident that an ammonia compressor will 
have a 100 per cent more capacity pumping ammonia gas, 
evaporating at 15 pounds gauge pressure and zero degrees 
F. temperature, than it has at a gauge pressure of zero 
pounds and a temperature of 28° below zero. 

Summing up the characteristics of the compression 
system, it is evident that it requires power to drive the gas- 
pump and a source of cooling water for the condenser. On 
account of the pressure of the gas to be handled, there are 
heavy reciprocating parts, flywheels, etc., which require 
quite extensive foundations. 

The conditions favoring a compression refrigerating 
machine, then, are, a cheap source of power, high refrig- 
erating temperature, a supply of cooling water, and an 
ample, suitable space for the equipment. 

Absorption Machines 

The foregoing description of the characteristics of 
water, ammonia, etc., will assist in describing the action of 
the absorption system for producing refrigeration. 

For comparison, it should be noted that the compres- 
sion machine received the low pressure ammonia gas from 
the evaporating chamber, compressed it mechanically to a 
high pressure, and delivered it directly to the condenser. 

The absorption machine has a very different plan of 
operation. In order to comprehend fully how the results 
are obtained, the fundamentals must be understood. As 
stated, the water in an open vessel boils at 212- F. and 
weighs about 62 pounds per cubic foot. Under the same 
conditions, pure ammonia boils at 28° below zero and 
weighs about 40 pounds per cubic foot. It is a known fact 
that ammonia gas discharged into cold water is condensed 



REFRIGERATION 205 

and absorbed into the water quite as readily as a jet of 
steam discharged into cold water is absorbed, and the heat 
of the steam is conveyed into the water. It becomes evi- 
dent that, if a quantity of ammonia gas is absorbed into 
water, in an open vessel, the resultant liquid, called aqua 
ammonia, absorbs the heat given up by the gas. The aqua 
ammonia will have a boiling point somewhere between 
212° F. above and 28° P. below zero. Also it will weigh per 
cubic foot less than pure water and more than pure am- 
monia liquid. A cubic foot of water at a temperature of 
50° F. will absorb 900 cubic feet of ammonia gas and at 
32° F. will absorb approximately 1100 cubic feet of gas. If 
the gas is mixed with the water under a greater pressure, 
the volume possible to be absorbed will be greater. 

With the foregoing facts established, they are applied 
in practical operation as follows: The absorption machine 
is provided with a closed vessel, or a series of them, called 
an absorber, into which the low pressure gas from the 
ammonia evaporating chamber or cold storage rooms is 
conducted. Into this vessel there is also conducted a con- 
tinuous supply of weak aqua ammonia, usually in the form 
of a spray. This spray comes in intimate contact with the 
ammonia gas, which is immediately condensed and ab- 
sorbed, and falls to the bottom of the absorber as strong 
aqua ammonia. The heat in the gas which is brought from 
the refrigerator is conveyed to the resultant liquid. This 
absorber, from which the system gets its name, may be 
compared to the suction stroke of the compressor, since it 
pulls the gas from the evaporating chamber. The next step 
is to separate the gas from the water and deliver it econom- 
ically to the condenser. As previously stated, the ammonia 
absorbing capacity of water depends upon the temperature 
of the water and the pressure of the gas. To increase the 
efficiency of the absorber, it is necessary to make the weak 
aqua ammonia, entering the absorber, as cold as possible, 
in order to increase its holding capacity. Then to drive 
off the ammonia gas we need only to reverse the absorption 
process and heat the strong aqua ammonia. 



206 REFRIGERATION 

The absorption machine is provided with an apparatus 
to accompHsh this purpose, which is called a generator. It 
consists of a closed vessel, in the lower portion of which is 
located steam-heating coils. To transfer the strong aqua 
ammonia to the generator, a small pump is employed. 
Since the low pressure gas from the refrigerating chamber 
has been condensed to liquid form, its volume has been 
greatly reduced and the absorption ammonia pump need 
only have one-fiftieth the cylinder displacement, required 
by the gas pump of a compression machine of the same 
refrigerating capacity. 

The absorption pump is usually automatically operated 
by a float resting in the strong aqua ammonia liquid. When 
the liquid rises to a fixed point the float rises and starts the 
pump. It draws the liquid from the absorber and delivers 
it through a heater, called an exchanger, to the generator. 
The strong liquid comes in contact with the generator 
steam coil and is heated. The ammonia, having a lower 
boiling point than the water, is driven off; the hotter the 
temperature, the weaker, in ammonia, the remaining solu- 
tion becomes. The gas, leaving the generator, is conducted 
to a purifier, usually called a rectifier, to remove any traces 
of water, which is the only impurity it would contain, and 
from here it is delivered to the condenser. The condenser 
of the absorption system may be identical with the same 
part in a compression system. Here the ammonia gas, 
under the combined influence of the pressure developed in 
the generator, by driving off the gas and the cool surfaces 
maintained by the water, condenses to a liquid and is at 
once ready to perform refrigerating effect again. 

It was stated that the absorber compares favorably 
with the suction stroke of the compressor pump; the 
ammonia generator of the absorption system has a like 
relation to the discharge stroke of the compressor. 

To increase the operating economy and efficiency of 
the absorption machine various devices have been added 
to the described parts; principal among these is the ex- 



REFRIGERATION 207 

changer. This is a device through which two streams of 
liquid can pass in opposite directions, through separate 
channels, yet be in thermal contact. It is placed between 
the absorber and the generator on the discharge side of the 
ammonia pump. The hot, weak aqua ammonia, from 
around the generator steam coils, is allowed to pass out 
of the bottom of the generator on its way to the absorber 
for a fresh charge of gas. 

Since the absorbing capacity of the weak aqua am- 
monia is increased by being cooled, it may first pass 
through the exchanger, where it passes the cold, strong 
aqua ammonia from the absorber and is cooled thereby. 

After leaving the exchanger, it may be passed through 
a coil cooled with water, to further reduce the temperature. 
This part is called a weak liquor cooler. The strong, cool 
aqua ammonia, from the absorber on its way to the gen- 
erator, must be heated to drive out the gas picked up in 
the absorber. Therefore, these two liquids are made to 
pass through the exchanger in opposite directions, one 
being heated and the other cooled. 

The absorption system in reclaiming the spent gases 
first liquefies the gas by mixing it with a small volume of 
water, which same water is used over and over again con- 
tinuously. In this convenient form, it is pumped into the 
generator or still, which is usually heated by the exhaust 
steam from the machine auxiliaries at low pressure. Here 
the heat drives off the working charge of ammonia and the 
water is promptly returned to the absorber for a fresh 
charge. Note that the water in the ammonia chamber is 
used as a liquid conveyor and for no other purpose and has 
no connection with the cooling water that circulates 
through the machine and carries away the heat extracted 
from the refrigerated body. 

Referring to- the compression system, it was made 
evident that when the ammonia evaporated at zero gauge 
pressure, the compressor was able to do less than half the 
work it could do if the evaporating pressure was 15 pounds 
gauge. This falling off in capacity is not found in the ab- 



208 REFRIGERATION 

sorption system, under similar conditions. An absorption 
machine capable of producing 100 tons with the ammonia 
evaporating pressure of 15 pounds would lose only about 
six per cent of its rated capacity if the pressure of the spent 
gas were zero pounds gauge. The absorption system has 
what is called a flat characteristic load capacity. The 
amount of ammonia gas it will handle is not based on a 
fixed cylinder displacement, as is the case with a compres- 
sor, but causes a steady pull by the affinity for gas of the 
weak aqua in the absorber. 

The absorption machine is especially adapted to pro- 
duce refrigeration economically where there is available a 
uniform supply of exhaust steam. Since this is the prin- 
cipal agent required, it is a large factor in reducing the cost 
of operation. From 30 to 40 pounds of exhaust steam per 
hour is required in the generating coils per ton of refrig- 
erating effect; the amount will depend largely upon the 
brine temperatures to be maintained as well as the tem- 
perature of the cooling water. Cold condensing water is 
desirable, but where not obtainable the machine should be 
built to suit operating conditions. Warm condensing water 
requires more volume and increases the power required 
for a compressor, and higher steam temperature in the 
generator of the absorption machine. 

The power required to operate the ammonia liquor 
pump of the absorption system, which is the only moving 
part, may be either steam or mechanical power and will not 
exceed one horsepower for each 15 tons of refrigerating 
effect produced. Having no heavy high tension recipro- 
cating parts, it may be located in any convenient place and 
in the foundation design the dead weight of the pump only 
need be considered. 
Refrigeration in Packing Houses 

The capacity of the refrigerating machine required to 
properly cool the cold storage rooms in a packing plant will 
depend upon the following conditions: (1) The quality of 
the insulation, (2) the size of the rooms, (3) the tempera- 



REFRIGERATION 209 

ture of the rooms, (4) the amount of warm meat which is 
put in storage. 

The following rules are derived as the result of prac- 
tical experience and are based on general practice now in 
use. They can be verified by calculations which, in all cases, 
will be found to require less refrigeration than herein 
stated. In actual operation, however, it is always the most 
severe conditions and the maximum requirements in the 
plant which must be provided for. This may give a 
reserve capacity for a greater part of the time, but it will 
also assure the owner that when all the capacity is required 
at one time it will be available, both in the engine room and 
in the cooling pipes. Safety first is a good rule to follow in 
laying out refrigerating work, and seems to be generally 
practiced by refrigerating engineers. 

Practical experience is the guide usually followed in 
computing the size of the machine. The prevaiUng prac- 
tice is to install a machine which will handle the output of 
the plant when this is run at its maximum capacity, and to 
provide also a smaller reserve machine, to be operated when 
less refrigeration is required. 

The space which can be cooled in 24 hours by one ton 
of refrigeration is generally figured between 5000 and 
12,000 cubic feet, depending upon the temperatures to be 
carried. 

Freezer storage at 15° Fahr. is figured at 5000 cubic 
feet per ton and curing cellars at from 10,000 to 12,000 
cubic feet per ton. 

Packing house coolers are nearly always of large size, 
so that the opening of doors and the number of electric 
lights, men working in the cooler, et^., are a less important 
factor than in small rooms, where these facts must be taken 
into consideration and cooling pipes provided accordingly. 

The refrigeration required for beef and hog coolers 
must be figured by the number of animals which are killed 
daily. 

The usual practice in well insulated cdslers is to allow 



210 REFRIGERATION 

one ton of refrigeration per 24 hours for the following 

number of freshly killed carcasses : 

5 to 6 Cattle average weight 700 lbs. 

15 to 22 Hogs average weight 225 lbs. 

50 to 65 Sheep . .average weight 60 lbs. 

40 to 50 Calves average weight 80 lbs. 

The following test was made in a Chicago packing 
plant, and gives some interesting and accurate data on the 
actual requirements of refrigeration as well as the cost of 
cooling : 

TOTAL COST OF REFRIGERATION PER 100 CARCASSES 

Total Cost 
Carcasses Tons Refrig. No. Ccs. per ton per 100 Ccs. 

100 Cattle 19.60 5.1 $9.85 

100 Calves 2.65 37.7 1.32 

100 Sheep 2.48 40.3 1.19 

100 Hogs 6.50 15.4 3.24 

100 Shippers 2.80 35.7 1.38 

Refrigerating Pipes in Packing House Coolers 

The amount of cooling surface which is required in the 
piping of a room to maintain the desired temperature de- 
pends upon the quality of the insulation, the size of the 
room and the temperature of the brine or the ammonia gas. 
In warm beef and hog coolers, the method of regulat- 
ing the temperature will influence the amount of refrig- 
erating pipes which will be required. In these coolers it is 
necessary to remove the animal heat without chilling the 
meat too rapidly or permitting the air in the room to rise 
above a certain temperature. This will, therefore, require 
a larger amount of piping than is later needed to maintain 
the temperatures after the animal heat is removed. The 
chilling process must be graduated so as to slowly bring 
the meat down to the temperature at which it is to be kept 
in storage. This requires a system of coils, arranged so 
that the refrigeration can be turned on in part or all at 
once, according to the needs. 

The usual packing house practice in well insulated 
coolers is to provide the following amount of direct expan- 
sion piping. *' The table is based upon one lineal foot of 



REFRIGERATION 



211 



2-inch pipe for the stated number of cubic feet, and this 
must include the cooler as well as the pipe-loft above. 

Warm Beef Cooler 1 lineal foot per 10 cubic feet 

Beef Storage Cooler 1 lineal foot per 12 cubic feet 

Sheep Coolers 1 lineal foot per 12 cubic feet 

Hog Coolers .1 lineal foot per 8 cubic feet 

Sausage Cooler 30°F. ..1 lineal foot per 10 cubic feet 

Curing Cellars 36°F. ...1 lineal foot per 18 cubic feet 

Freezers 15 oF 1 lineal foot per 6 cubic feet 

Freezers OoF 1 lineal foot per 2i/^ cubic feet 

This amount of piping is ample to properly maintain 

temperatures when the pipes are reasonably free from frost. 

Details of Supports for Refrigerating Pipes 

The method of supporting the pipes in cold storage 
rooms is different on almost every job. This is caused 




FIG. 121 — ARRANGEMENT OF PIPES OVER BEEF COOLER. 

either by difference in building construction or by the pref- 
erence of the contractor for a special style of support. 
When the erection of the refrigerating pipes is contracted 
for, and no particular type of hanger is specified, it is left 
to the discretion of the contractor what constitutes a sub- 
stantial, serviceable hanger. This may not always be satis- 
factory, since it gives the contractor an opportunity to put 
in something "just as good." 

In fireproof buildings, with the best of equipment, the 
life of the hanger should, at least, be equal to that of the 
piping, and they should be of rigid construction and sub- 



212 



REFRIGERATION 



stantially put up, so as to carry the weight of the pipmg 
when this is covered with ice. In pipe lofts, where a de- 
frosting system is used, the hangers should be galvanized 
by the hot process, so as to withstand the action of the salt 
brine. In buildings of wood construction the hangers 
should be bolted to the ceiling and not fastened by lag 
screws, which is the method generally used by contractors. 
Inserts should be used in concrete ceilings instead of bolts, 
so that the supports can be renewed, if they rust out. 

The following illustration shows methods of support- 
ing the pipes under various conditions. 




FIG. 122— ARRANGEMENT OF PIPES OVER HOG COOLER. 



In Figures 121 and 122 is illustrated the piping in beef 
and hog coolers. The hangers are supported from the ceil- 
ing above and bolted to the inserts, which are built into the 
concrete. The advantage of this construction over any 
method which supports the pipes from below is evident. 
The piping is not affected by the vibration of the timber 
construction in the cooler, due to beef and hogs being 
pushed along the rails. It also leaves the drip-pan free of 
any obstructions which may interfere with the proper 
drainage. 



REFRIGERATION 



213 



The hangers are made from %x2y2-inch iron and the 
pipes rest on s^-inch bolts. The top and bottom bolts are 
rmi through 1-inch pipe separators, which prevent the 
hangers from being squeezed together. 

The supports for the brine defrosting pipes are ad- 
justable, so that the pipes can be raised or lowered as 
needed to distribute the brine evenly over the entire length 
of the coil. 

The hangers should always be placed so that there will 
be room between each two rows of pipe for making any 
necessary repairs. 




^/A. ROD e&'UONCi^ 
THCEA.DED BOTH^ 
ENDS 

VpiPE E2"lONCj-J:1. 
^ r4-|l 3LEEVE^ ^ 



DBILL 3r 
countersink: 
FOR WOOD - 
5CCCW3 



;^ r^^ H 



^|^^^^^^fc||Kn 



/: ^^^<t^LJJr^4r^yA^=.J:y^;^xifc-^;^y.- j ^ 






DT2IP P^N 3EE DETML 



FIG. 123— DETAIL OF HANGER FOR CEILING COIL. 



In Figure 123 is illustrated a method of supporting a 
pipe coil from the ceiling in cold storage rooms. 

The hangers are made of 3/gx2-inch iron and are bolted 
to the inserts. The pipes are carded on %-inch rods with 
1-inch pipe separators to keep the^' hangers apart. The 
lower support is extended beyond the hangers and carries 
the drip-pan below the coil. The pan is made of two thick- 
nesses of ygxe-inch dressed and matched boards, with a 
1-inch air space between, and is lined with prepared roofing. 

In Figure 124 is illustrated a hanger for supporting the 
piping along a wall. It is made of %x2i/2-inch iron and the 



214 



REFRIGERATION 



pipes are carried on %x2-inch bearings, which are riveted 
to the hanger. 

In Figure 125 is illustrated a support for a pipe coil in 



t^^ INJECT Ja.'; • "• 






% 






- Vg RN 



o 



ET <-' 



^ 



.^^.''bolt 



5/_)(S 



sr=i 



^ m 



FIG. 124 — DETAIL OF HANGER FOR WALL PIPES. 




FIG. 125 — DETAIL OF HANGER FOR PIPE COIL IN FREEZER. 



the ceihng of a freezer room. The hangers are placed about 
three feet apart and bolted to inserts with %-inch bolts. 
The pipes rest on 1-inch pipe separators and the load is 
carried by a %-inch rod which is continuous from end to 



REFRIGERATION 215 

end. The rod cannot be removed except by unscrewing 
the nuts at each end. 

In Figure 126 is illustrated a pipe rack used in the sharp 
freezers, where the goods to be frozen are placed directly 
on the cooling pipes. These racks are much used in pack- 
ing houses and in fish freezers and are arranged so that 
goods can be handled from both sides of the racks. The 
pipes are supported by 3-inch channel irons riveted to 
4-inch channel iron uprights which are fastened to the floor 
and ceiling. The unevenness of the concrete makes it im- 
possible to cut the uprights to the exact lengths required 
and have them fit correctly in all parts of the job. They 
should, therefore, be made I/2 inch shorter than the distance 
between the floor and the ceiling and should be provided 
with an adjustable attachment at the top which will permit 
of a slight variation in the construction. The detail shows 
a 2-inch bar bolted to the top of the channel iron. The bar 
extends up into the concrete ceiling and is made adjustable 
on the channel iron by a slot cut in the bar. 
Defrosting of Refrigerating Pipes 

When the air in the room is prevented from coming in 
direct contact with the refrigerating pipes, due to heavy 
frost on the pipes, there is a reduced efficiency in the cool- 
ing system. For this reason, the pipes are regularly scraped 
free from frost, in plants where the cold storage rooms are 
properly operated. To facilitate the removal of the ice 
after it is scraped off there should be provided means of 
fastening the drip-pans so that these can be unhooked on 
one side and the ice dropped on the floor. 

In packing house coolers with overhead pipe lofts there 
should be installed a defrosting sys,tem, which will keep 
the pipes clean at all times. 

This is very effectively accomplished by placing a per- 
forated 2-inch brine pipe over each row of refrigerating 
pipes and let the brine trickle down over the cooling pipes. 
This arrangement is illustrated by Figure 127 and is also 
shown on the details of the piping in several other figures. 
The illustration requires a small open brine tank, about 



216 



REFRIGERATION 



|^:>- --<;.,- ..(^ 3^_ ^1^ e>_ 



^L 



:— -^t- -p) — ©- --^ 



-^- 



-& — &~ -<i^ 



2'REFRIOERMiNG P1PE5 



s--— — s- 



^r-^ 8^ 



^^ 



-4-^^ 



-*F 



zSzii 



^^ ^-^- -p,-^- -^-^ -^ 



^ — ^^ — i^ - -Q — p>- 



I^ 



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^ 



i^ 



-ff^ ^-4"'^ d'-^ '/4^^^NOLE■ 



-34"x4" BOLT-^ < 



n¥ 



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3"-4- 




CHANNEL 



4 -54* CHANNEL 

SIDEOi ^ 

FE.OM 6-0"T(p 8'-d' 

APAirr 



1 , FLOOR iKJtIl-INEi 



ELEVAT10N3 



fXl 



4"-5l^* CHANNEL 
^^4V3"'< ^A ANO.LE 



l«S/4"3LOT- 



3"-4-* CHANNEL - 



1^^ 
WAOhEC "^^ 

%'HOLE IN 
CHANNEL 



PL^N Detail of Top 

FIG. 126 — DETAIL OF DOUBLE FREEZER RACK. 



REFRIGERATION 



217 



four feet in diameter and four feet high, which is placed 
either on the floor of the cooler or in some other convenient 
location. When the tank is not placed in a refrigerated 
room it will be necessary to insulate both the tank and the 
brine main. 

A small centrifugal pump discharges the brine through 
the defrosting systems, and after it has passed over the 
cooling pipes it is collected on the floor of the pipe loft and 
returned by gravity to the tank. 

The brine distributing header should be placed in the 



r> M 




e"DIXHM2,(jt.x, 



E'VALVL 



DICLLCr CX>NNt.CTt-D 

CLNTD-IFUO^L PUMP 

3"3L)CX10N 

2" DIACHM3-Cj£- 



u 



|(3"-3UCJION 






6B.1NL 
^JTClLNOTMLNING 



^E ovLcruow 



FIG. 127 — DEF'ROSTING SYSTEM. 



center of the pipe loft, in order to give an equal distribution 
of brine to the branch pipes on each side. These are con- 
trolled by shut-off cocks for turning on and off the brine 
as needed. The pipes are supported on adjustable hooks, 
so that they can be properly leveled and distribute the brine 
evenly over the entire length of the coil. The pipe is per- 
forated on top with 1/4 -inch holes, spaced four inches apart, 
or it can be made so that the brine will flow out through a 
continuous slit in the top of the pipe. The header should 
be connected at each end to the return pipe in order to 
complete the circulation of the whole system. 



CHAPTER XVII 
COLD STORAGE DOORS 

The demand for well constructed, air-tight cold stor- 
age doors, which will stand years of hard service, has placed 
the building of these doors in the hands of manufacturers 
who specialize in the construction of various cold storage 
equipment. There are a number of special cold storage 
doors on the market, which are built on the same general 
principle of construction, with the exception of some varia- 
tions in the detail of jambs and casings. The manufac- 
turers have patented the hardware they use, hence the 
expression "patented doors." 
Construction 

The ordinary type of patented cold storage door is 
made with an outside frame of 2-inch spruce lumber, bev- 
eled at the sides and cross-braced with 2x4-inch diagonal 
braces. This frame forms a hollow box four inches high, 
in which the insulating material is laid. The door is cov- 
ered on both sides with two thicknesses of waterproof paper 
and finished with a paneled front and a tongued and 
grooved back of %-inch lumber. It is further stiffened by 
extra hinge blocks and nailing strips, which gives a very 
rigid and strong construction throughout and prevents the 
door from sagging or getting out of shape. 

The standard makes of doors, as furnished by the man- 
ufacturer, include the door-frame, casing on one side of 
the wall and all the necessary hardware. The door will be 
shipped crated and ready to be placed in the opening. 

A common fault in many cold storage buildings is that 
the door openings are made too small. It should be remem- 
bered that when the door frame is placed in position the 
net opening is reduced from three and one-half to seven 
inches in width, depending upon the type of door used. 



COLD STORAGE DOORS 219 

When there is much trucking through the opening this 
opening should be made wide enough to allow for ample 
clearance on both sides of the truck. A 5-foot 6-inch door 
is generally used in cold storage work, as it gives a net 
clearance of about five feet. 

The standard doors, as made by the manufacturers, 
are not sufficiently protected against injury from trucks 
and packages passing through the doorway. 

The author recommends that the corners of the door, 
as well as the jambs, be protected by 2-inch galvanized 
angle-irons and that the lower half be covered with No. 22 
galvanized sheet iron. This protection must be specified 
when the doors are ordered, unless the purchaser intends 
to put it on after they are in place. 

The specifications should also state that the doors 
must be covered with a coat of shellac as protection against 
moisture and consequent swelling while in transit. 

Hardware 

The preference given by many cold storage owners to 
one make of door over that of another is largely due 
to the hardware. The merits of any particular hinge or 
fastener can only be observed by continuous trial, in actual 
operation, and in comparison with other makes which have 
been similarly tested. 

The hardware which is now used by all leading door 
makers has been perfected by them to such an extent that 
one marvels at the ease with which these heavy, clumsy 
doors are quickly opened and closed. It will keep the doors 
in perfect adjustment during years of hard service and is 
far superior to the old-fashioned strap-hinge and lever- 
fastener formerly used. * 

Galvanized hardware is furnished by the manufac- 
turers when no particular finish is specified by the pur- 
chaser. They are prepared, however, to furnish any finish 
desired. Polished brass is often used in more pretentious 
places and looks well on oak-veneered doors. 

High doors, eight feet or over, should be equipped with 



220 COLD STORAGE DOORS 

three hinges and double fasteners, m order to prevent the 
top of the door from bowmg away from the frame. 
Insulation 

The manufacturers will insulate the doors with any 
material specified by the purchaser, either hair-felt, mineral 
wool, lith, linofelt, granulated cork, or pure cork board will 
be furnished. 

Since the efficiency of the door depends largely upon 
the durability and heat-resisting qualities of the insulation, 
preference should be given to doors insulated with the best 
materials. The author believes that cork board and granu- 
lated cork will give the best results. 

The w^orkmanship and labor necessary to manufacture 
the door is practically the same with any kind of insulating 
material. Therefore, the added cost of the door due to the 
use of a more expensive insulating material will be 
returned by the increased efficiency and life of the door. 

Freezer doors should always be insulated with pure 
cork board set in hot asphalt. For ordinary cold storage 
doors granulated cork is generally used. This, however, 
like any other loose filler, has a tendency to settle after the 
door is in use, and leaves a void at the top of the door. 
Installation of Doors 

A common fault with cold storage doors is the manner 
in which they are installed. The manufacturer is seldom 
asked to send an experienced man to oversee the installa- 
tion, consequently this is left to the building contractor or 
to the owner's employees, and unless they are familiar with 
the work there is trouble with the door, sooner or later. 

The uprights to which the jambs are bolted must be 
strong and rigid and securely fastened to the building con- 
struction. The doors must be hung absolutely true and 
plumb, otherwise they will soon sag and work loose. The 
importance of having substantial support is evident when 
we consider that the weight of the ordinary cold storage 
door is about fifteen pounds per square foot. 

The following illustrations of door installations show 
the type of door manufactured by a well known concern, 



COLD STORAGE DOORS 



221 



who make a specialty of this class of construction. This 
type was used only because it was necessary to depict a 
door. 

In Figure 128 is illustrated a cold storage door, placed 
in a solid cork partition. The door frame is bolted to the 



GA.LVA.NIZED IRON 
COVE.EINQ A'-O HIGH" 



FLOOR, LINEN, 



PMITITION 



PLA'N 



(4'V^" LINTEB 




feVfe" BUCK- 




DOOR. 



T^v^-M 



.WlCt. LfeTH 



tLtVATION 



CEMENT 31LL' 



^ 



CENIENT ,Oll.l_\ ■ I 



^^■'OtCTlON 



FIG. 128 — REFRIGERATOR DOOR IN CORK BOARD PARTITION. 



6x6-inch buck on ^ach side of the opening and to the 4x6- 
inch wood lintel above the door. One-half -inch lag screws 
are used for bolting and they should not be placed further 
than 24 inches apart. The bucks are mortised into the con- 
crete floor and ceiling and grouted with neat cement. 



222 



COLD STORAGE DOORS 



y^ 50LT 




5"CH^NNLL^ 



FIG. 129— REFRIGERATOR DOOR JAMB BOLTED TO CHANNEL IRON 

BUCKS. 



GA.LVAN1ZED ICON 
COVERINO 4'-0"HlGH 




^tCTlON 



FIG. 130— REFRIGERATOR DOOR IN BRICK WALL. 



COLD STORAGE DOORS 



223 



Another method is to put up a channel iron buck fastened 
to the floor and ceihng and bolt the door jambs to the chan- 
nel with y2-inch machine bolts every three feet (Pig. 129). 
In Figure 130 is illustrated a method of fastening cooler 
doors, made for openings in brick walls. The 4x6-inch 
bucks are set flush with the inside face of the insulation 
and bolted with three y2xl2-inch bolts. A 4x6-inch lintel 
is spiked to the top of the uprights and the door frame 
fastened at the sides and top with 1/2 -inch lag screws. 

In Figure 131 is illustrated a cooler door placed in a 
double brick wall where insulation is of the same type as 
that shown in Figure 88. The 6x6-inch bucks are set 
flush with the inside face of the 4-inch wall and bolted 
at the top and bottom to the steel lintel and sill. A 2i/>-inch 
angle-iron is fastened to the steel work and the bucks 
bolted to the angles with two 1/2 -inch machine bolts. 

The granulated cork insulation between the walls is 
held in place at the sides of the opening with a 3-inch 
plank sub-jamb, spiked to the bucks. The door frame is 
bolted with 1/2 -inch lag screws, 24 inches apart. The space 
between the door frame and the supports should be caulked 
with oakum, driven in from both sides of the frame and the 
joints sealed with hot asphalt. When the joints are wider 
than one-fourth of an inch they should be fllled with a 
mixture of cork dust and hquid asphalt, after being 
caulked. 

Door Sills 

Cooler doors should be hung so that the bottom of the 
door, will swing clear of the floor. A raised door sill is, 
therefore, required for the door to close against. The sill 
should be beveled so as not to interfere with the trucking. 

In concrete floors the sill can be formed by raising the 
floor at the opening, as shown in Figure 128. 

A better job-can be obtained by using a steel or cast- 
iron sill, anchored to the floor, as shown in Figure 130. 
Where wood floors are used, a beveled oak sill should be 
nailed to the underflooring. This sill should come as a part 
of the door frame and preferably made at the factory. 



224 COLD STORAGE DOORS 

Doors With Overhead Track 

When there is an overhead track or meat-rail passing 
through the door opening the door is made to swing below 
the rail and a small trap door is placed in the hood over 



:iALVA,NIZED ICON 
CDVEEING 4'-0" HIGH 




SECTION 

PIG. 131— REFRIGERATOR DOOR IN DOUBLE WALL INSULATION. 

the door, covering the pocket for the rail. The trap is 
hinged at the top and controlled by a device which works 
automatically, opening and closing with the door. 



COLD STORAGE DOORS 



225 



A clearance of 10 inches is required from the underside 
of the rail to the lintel over the door. 
How to Order Cold Storage Doors 

Doors are made either "right hand" or "left hand," 
depending on which side of the frame they are to be hung. 
In order to tell which type of door is required, one should 
stand facing the door opening, so that the door opens 
toward him, and note on which side the hinges are to be 
fastened. If on the right, order a right-hand door; if on 
the left, order a left-hand door. This is illustrated by 
Figure 132. 





LLFT H^ND DOOU, 



ILIGHT H^^iD DOOR. 



FIG. 132- 



-METHOD OP DISTINGUISHING RIGHT AND LEFT HAND 
DOORS. 



The manufacturer should be given full information 
regarding the type of insulation to be used in the door, also 
whether a cold storage or a freezer door is wanted. For 
track doors, give the exact height from the finished floor 
line to the underside of the rail. 

The author recommends the following method of order- 
ing doors where a variety of them is required for the 
building : 



Size of Wall 
Opening- 


o o 3 


How 
Hung- 


Track 


Heifrhtto 
Under- 
side 
of Rail 




Freezer 
Door 


Insula- 
tion 


'cfi 


T3 
O u 


Width 


Heigfht 


5'-0" 


7'— 10" 


2 


Left 


Yes 


V— 0" 


Yes 




Gran. 
Cork 


Bev. 
Oak 


14 


5'-0" 


6'-9" 


1 


Right 


No 






Yes 


Cork 
Board 


None 


15 






- 














































































' 











226 



COLD STORAGE DOORS 



The above schedule, if carefully filled out, will simplify 
the ordering of doors and often avoid misunderstanding on 
the part of the manufacturer. If the number of the door 
is marked on the drawing as well as on the door it will 
materially assist the workmen in finding the correct door 
for any opening. 




XCTION 



FIG. 133— REFRIGERATOR DOOR BOLTED TO STEEL, FIRE DOOR. 



The purchaser should clearly state the width and 
height of the rough opening in which the door is to be 
placed, bearing in mind that the net opening will be approx- 
imately six inches less in width and three inches less in 
height when the heavy door frame is in place. 



COLD STORAGE DOORS 



227 



Refrigerator Door Bolted to Fire Door 

The combination of a refrigerator door and fire door 
is required for openings in brick walls where the under- 
writers do not permit the use of a tin-covered cold storage 
door. In order to open the two doors at one time it is neces- 
sary to bolt them together and hinge them from the fire 
door frame. 




35=^3) 



ft=3.=. 



NO 20 OALV laON 



HLAVY W hough: I COM HIMOL 



3) 



LLLVATION 



■DETAIL of comm 



PLAN 



PIG. 134— DETAIL OF HOME MADE COOLER DOOR. 



The hardware for the cold storage door is, therefore, 
omitted. The angle-iron frame is placed flush with the 
inside face of the insulation and tied to the frame on the 
other side of the brick wall. 

In Figure 133 the doors are shown bolted with three 



228 COLD STORAGE DOORS 

1/2 -inch bolts at the top and bottom and with intermediate 
bolts on the side about 30 inches apart. 

The holes in the fire door should be punched at the 
shop where the door is made and the cold storage door 
drilled and bolted on the job. The bolts by which the 
handles are fastened to the fire door must be long enough 
to pass through the refrigerator door, otherwise the doors 
could not be opened except from the inside of the room. 

Home-Made Refrigerator Door 

In Figure 134 is illustrated the construction of a cold 
storage door which can be made by the house carpenter or 
local mill. It is the type of door which was in common 
use before the "special door" was introduced. The frame 
and diagonal cross pieces are made of 2"x4" lumber covered 
on both sides with insulating paper and two thicknesses of 
%x6-inch dressed and matched boards. The first thick- 
ness of boards should be laid diagonally over the framework 
and covered with insulating paper. The outside boards are 
set vertically and extend one inch beyond the edges of the 
framework. This makes a rabbeted edge all around the 
door, which is filled with one-inch hair-felt and covered 
with heavy canvas cloth. The door is made with three- 
fourths of an inch bevel at the sides and top and the 3x12- 
inch jamb beveled to correspond. The hollow space formed 
by the frame and the stiffeners is filled with granulated 
cork or other insulating material. The lower half of the 
door should be covered on both sides with No. 20 gauge 
galvanized iron, if the opening is used as a passage for 
trucks. The hinges and fasteners should be of galvanized 
wrought iron and securely bolted through the door with 
galvanized iron bolts. 



CHAPTER XVIII 
COLD STORAGE WINDOWS 

There is a wide difference of opinion regarding the 
value of windows in cold storage rooms. Many plants have 
been built without them, depending entirely upon artificial 
means for lighting and ventilation. 

On the other hand, many modern plants have been 
designed with one or two windows in each room and with- 
out any other means of ventilation, depending upon the 
natural circulation of air which always takes place in large 
rooms with cooling pipes on the ceiling. 

The windows can be opened when the temperature of 
the outside air permits if careful attention is paid to the 
temperature in the room while the windows are open. 

It would seem that a limited amount of window open- 
ings in all cold storage buildings would be advantageous, 
for several reasons. First, as a means of access in case of 
fire and providing light if the lighting system be thus dam- 
aged. Second, as a means of ventilation during the season 
of the year when the outside air could be admitted without 
detriment to the goods in storage. Third, for ventilation 
of empty rooms during all seasons of the year. Fourth, for 
the purpose of providing natural light. 

Windows should be located a^t the ends of trucking 
alleys, so that they can be opened without having to shift 
any of the commodities in storage. When they are opened 
for ventilation the air should be circulated by a portable 
fan, placed near the window. This greatly increases the 
circulation, and also overcomes the objection often ex- 
pressed that windows will not ventilate sufficiently to be 
of any practical value. 



230 



COLD STORAGE WINDOWS 



Types of Windows 

The usual type of window in cold storage buildings is 
made stationary and used only for the purpose of admitting 
natural light to the rooms. When both light and ventilation 
is desired, the windows must be made to open, and a hinged 
style is then used. The essential requirements of both 
types are that the joints be made tight and that there be 
sufficient glass with sealed air-spaces between to effectively 
reduce the transmission of heat through the glass. 




FIG. 135— DETAIL OF FIXED COLD STORAGE WINDOW. 



When close attention is paid to the construction of the 
windows, and the insulation is carefully fitted all around 
the frames a satisfactory job can be made in cold storage 
work. 

Windows in freezing rooms, however, should not be 
installed unless they are sealed on the inside with an 
insulated door-plug. 

The efficiency of the window, from a cold storage 
standpoint, depends altogether upon the care with which it 
is made and put in place. The joints around the frame 
must be sealed with oakum and paint and the packing must 
form a continuous air-tight seal all around the sash. 



COLD STORAGE WINDOWS 231 

The wood used in the construction of windows should 
be of clear white pine or cypress, as these woods do not 
crack or warp. The materials should be well seasoned, 
kiln-dried wood and the windows painted before being 
taken to the building. 

Stationary Windows 

These can be built as shown in Figure 135. The plank 
frame is made of l%xlO-inch white pine, cut in two and 
splined. The four sash for the glass are made 1% inches 
thick and separated by %-inch parting strips. The casing 
is of %x4-inch yellow pine or other finishing wood and 
should not be put on until after the insulation is finished. 

When the window is assembled the sash and parting 
strip should be set in white lead and oil paint and driven up 
tightly on all sides of the frame. The glass is tacked in 
place and bedded in felt which has been soaked in white 
lead and oil. The joints between the frame and the wall 
should be packed with oakum and sealed with asphalt pitch. 

Hinged Windows 

In Figure 136 is illustrated a type of hinged window 
which is made on the same principle as a refrigerator door. 

The frame is beveled and rabeted for the sash, and 
anchored to the brick wall with two i^x2-inch iron anchors 
on each side of the frame. 

The large, heavy sash, which holds the four thick- 
nesses of glass, is beveled on the sides and on top to corre- 
spond with the bevel on the frame. The sash should be 
made, with two seals of contact with the frame when the 
window is closed, and the contact points covered with flex- 
ible rubber or felt packing, which is nailed to the sash. The 
glass is bedded in strips of heavy felt, soaked in white lead 
and oil paint. This makes an air-tight joint and prevents 
the glass from cracking, due to the swelling of the wood 
parting strips. 

The sash should be hung with three hinges in order to 
prevent sagging. Two hinges are insufficient unless a 
patented spring hinge is used. 



232 



COLD STORAGE WINDOWS 



Fasteners should be put on at the top and bottom oi 
the sash, when it is over four feet high. One fastener is 
sufficient for smaller sash. 



MJEMBLY DtTML 



Hnr-?^ 


p n 


^^1 


pi;,'...-.4 


■:.''Mf{/>t;'- 


1-/. ''A 


m 


^ 


J;^ 


- ^'«4 


OAtUfA ftaOUND 
ENTIRE FOAME 


VeFLAT^ 




FKJ. 136 — DETAIIi OF HINGED COLD STORAGE WINDOW. 



COLD STORAGE WINDOWS 



233 



Freezer Windows 

In Figure 137 is illustrated a false window which can 
he used in freezer rooms, where it is desirable to provide 
outside ventilation. The opening in the wall is closed by a 
hinged door plug, which is insulated and has a glazed sash 
on the outside. The sash is put on for appearance sake and 
can be omitted where there is no object in having the 
imitation window. 

The door plug is insulated with four inches of cork 
board covered on both sides with paper and %-inch dressed 
and matched V groove boards, set vertically. 




FIG. 137 — DETAIL, OF HINGED FREEZER WINDOW. 



The door and frame is beveled on the sides and top and 
the two seals of contact between door and frame are cov- 
ered with a flexible packing of rubber) or felt. 

The frame is anchored to the wall with two i/4x2-inch 
iron anchors on each side. 

The door plug should be braced by two %-inch rods 
set diagonally in the center of the plug between the two 
layers of cork board. 

Hinges and fasteners should be put on in the same 
manner as described for the hinged cooler window. 



234 



COLD STORAGE WINDOWS 



Fireproof Cold Storage Windows 

Where the openmgs must be protected by fireproof 
windows, these should be made separate from the cold 



niNGLD COLD 5TO&AOL WINDOW 




FIG. 138 — COLD STORAGE WINDOW PROTECTED BY FIRE UNDER- 
WRITERS STANDARD WINDOW. 



storage window and placed in the position shown by Fig- 
ure 138. This simphfies the construction and is approved 
by the underwriters. 



CHAPTER XIX 
FLOORS 

Packing House Floors 

Packing house floors are required to withstand more 
wear and tear and hard usage than is ordinarily expected of 
floors in manufacturing buildings. This is due principally 
to heavy trucking and to constant cleaning and washing up 
with hot water. In many departments there is also a great 
deal of hot grease and oil spilled on the floors, which deter- 
iorates the surface. Under these conditions it is difficult to 
lay a floor which will successfully stand years of hard 
service and still remain in a satisfactory and sanitary con- 
dition. 

The materials must be selected with the utmost care 
and the workmanship in the laying of the floor must be of 
the very best. This is particularly true of asphalt and con- 
crete floors where the mixing and handling of the mate- 
rials require skilled workmen, who thoroughly understand 
how the floors should be laid. 

The drainage of the floor should be sufficient to rap- 
idly carry off the- water to the gutters and drain outlets. 
Too much stress cannot be laid upon the fact that where 
there is a depression or unevenness in the floor, in which 
water is allowed to stand, such places will show signs 
of wearing out, long before the rest Of the floor is affected. 
For this reason too much attention cannot be paid to hav- 
ing an even, smooth wearing floor and the time to insist 
upon this is when' the floor is being put down. Afterwards 
it is too late, as the floor cannot be satisfactorily patched 
or remedied. 

The varied construction of packing house floors has 
brought into practical use all kinds of materials for floor 



226 FLOORS 

surfaces, some of which are better adapted to certam con- 
ditions than others. There are, however, differences of 
opinion as to which kind of materials to use in various 
departments, particularly so with regard to the use of 
asphalt and concrete. The poor results which some own- 
ers have had with floors of this kind have made them 
condemn these entirely, regardless of the experience which 
others have had. 

In a general way it can be said that asphalt is not well 
adapted for use where there is hot water and grease being 
spilled on the floor, and where there is excessive trucking. 

The same can be said, to less extent, about concrete, 
although these floors are greatly improved by using floor 
hardeners in the wearing surface. 
Wood Floors 

These are satisfactory only when they remain water- 
tight and are laid with the kind of wood which will most 
effectively resist dampness. For this reason, long leaf 
yellow pine should be used, as it will outlast any other floor- 
ing, when clear edge-grain stock, containing a high per- 
centage of rosin or natural gum, is selected. A cheaper 
grade of underflooring is first put down and covered with 
waterproofing material, over which the edge-grain wearing 
floor is placed. This should be one and three-fourth inches 
thick for all manufacturing floors and seven-eightjis inch 
thick in beef and hog hanging coolers. 

The floor should be tongued and grooved, and blind- 
nailed every 12 inches with galvanized flooring nails and 
each board should be driven up tight against the flooring 
already laid. 

All ends or ridges should be planed off after the floor 
is flnished, in order to remove any unevenness which could 
hold back the water. Such pockets are the starting points 
of decay in the floor and it will wear out in these places 
long before the rest of the floor shows any signs of rot. 

The waterprooflng should be laid with not less than 
four ply of odorless, saturated felt, weighing 15 pounds per 
100 square feet. Each layer should be thoroughly mopped 



FLOORS 237 

with odorless pitch or asphalt, applied hot and generously. 
The success of the waterproofing depends principally upon 
the care with which it is put down. This refers particularly 
to the floor at the wall lines, posts and around all openings. 
The waterproofing must be carefully fitted around the posts 
and carried up behind the protecting cant strips placed 
along the wall. 

With waterproofing floors a 3x3-inch cant strip should 
be placed at all intersecting points ; that is, where the walls 
or posts intersect the floor. These strips should be put wher- 
ever an aperture exists through which water could pass. 
The strips should be carefully mitered at all corners and 
angles and the joints driven up with oakum and fllled with 
a high grade of pine tar pitch. It will be necessary to refill 
the joints around the posts after the wood has shrunk away 
from the cant strip. 

Caulked Wood Floors 

Heavy plank floors laid with caulked joints are fre- 
quently used when there is little trucking over the floors. 
The planks should not be less than three inches thick, while 
four inches is required in mill construction. 

The width should be from eight to ten inches and the 
wood must, therefore, be flat sawed or slash-grained. The 
joints at the side are beveled and caulked with oakum and 
then filled with a high grade of pine tar pitch. 

Flat sawed fiooring has a tendency to splinter when 
the floor begins to wear, and is, therefore, not recom- 
mended for use in departments where there is much 
trucking. An edge-grain flooring four or six inches wide 
will give better results. 

It will be necessary to recaulk tlie joints from time to 
time, as the pitch is carried away by frequent washing. 
When the work is thoroughly done a caulked floor will 
remain watertight indefinitely. 

Asphalt Floors 

Asphalt had been extensively used in packing house 
work with good results where the conditions favored its use 



238 FLOORS 

and the workmanship and materials were of the highest 
grade. 

Commercial asphalt is obtained from several sources. 
We have the rock asphalt which is manufactured from a 
limestone or sandstone rock, heavily impregnated with 
asphalt. The percentage of the latter substance may vary 
from 15 to 30 per cent. This rock is mined in many coun- 
tries in Europe and also in the states of Utah, New Mexico 
and California. 

The so-called lake asphalt is produced in Trinidad and 
Bermudez and consists of asphalt substances mixed with 
clay and fine sand. The principal difference between the 
asphalt found in these two localities is that the Trinidad 
product is much harder than that of Bermudez. 

Gilsonite, which is found in Utah, is perhaps the purest 
form of asphalt in its natural state. It will analyze over 
99 per cent of bitumen. 

Before the natural asphalt can be used as a material 
for construction it must be dried and mixed with other sub- 
stances in order to make it of the proper consistency. This 
prepared substance is called Mastic and the formulae which 
are used by various manufacturers in the preparation of 
their product is their trade secret. 

The American Asphaltum Co. claims that their Mastic 
is a mixture of asphalt rock, from their own mines, and 
Gilsonite. 

The Barber Asphalt Co. claims that theirs is composed 
of a mixture of Trinidad, Bermudez and imported asphalt 
rocks. 

There are other materials which have entered into the 
preparation of mastics, such as the residue left from the 
distillation of crude oil into petroleum, coal tar, tar pitch, 
etc. 

When the mastic is used for flooring it is mixed with 
about 20 per cent of flux, which is a softer material made 
from petroleum residuum and a certain amount of sand 
and fine gravel. This mixture is heated in kettles for about 



FLOORS 239 

five hours and cooked under continual stirring until the 
ingredients are thoroughly mixed. 

It is generally laid over the floor in two courses of 
about 34-inch thickness each. The floor is first covered 
with a layer of heavy building paper with overlapping 
joints. Each layer of asphalt is worked with wooden spalls 
until it is entirely free from voids and a smooth, even sur- 
face is obtained. Over the top coat is sprinkled dry Port- 
land cement while the finish is being troweled and rolled. 

The asphalt mixture used in packing houses should 
vary with the temperature of the rooms in which it is used. 
A higher percentage of mineral matter, which gives a stiffer 
and harder floor, should be used in warm places. A mixture 
containing more bitumen and less mineral matter is better 
suited to cold storage rooms, where a softer and less brittle 
floor is more desirable. 

In a general way, it may be said that asphalt is subject 
to deterioration when in contact with water, grease and 
oily substances. Cold water is not injurious to any great 
extent unless the floor is subject to considerable wear along 
with the water action. Hot water disintegrates the floor 
very rapidly, when it is also subject to wear. Hot grease 
and oil will disintegrate asphalt instantly and should, there- 
fore, be kept off the floor absolutely. 

The life of the floor depends upon the evenness with 
which the floor is laid and upon the action of foreign sub- 
stances, as well as the amount of trucking on the floor. 

Asphalt will not crack, when properly laid. It is 
durable, sanitary and easily kept clean and is, therefore, 
one of the best flooring materials in use at the present time. 
Concrete Floors Laid Over Wood Floors 

The following specification for laying concrete floors 
over wood floors is used by one of the largest Chicago pack- 
ing companies, which has had much experience in laying 
such floors: 

1 — -Mop the floor with hot Asphalt or Roofing Pitch. 
2 — Then lay 4-ply of best Roofing Felt, each layer to be mopped 
over its entire surface with hot Asphalt or Roofing Pitch. While the 



240 FLOORS 

Asphalt is still hot cover the floor surface with i/4-inch of gravel, clean 
and well screened. 

3 — Then lay l^/^ inches of concrete mixed in proportion of one 
part of Portland Cement to four parts of crushed granite, screened 
to pass through a i/^-inch ring. On top of this lay poultry netting. 

4 — Floor to be finished with l^/^ inches of concrete of the same 
mixture as above and troweled to a smooth, even surface, using dry 
cement when troweling. 

5 — Floor to have expansion joints so that each bay v/ill be divided 
into four equal squares. Joints to be 14-inch thick and filled with hot 
asphalt after the concrete is dry. 

Monolithic Concrete Floors. 

The rapidity with which concrete has become the 
standard building material for industrial plants is an indi- 
cation of its increased use in the future in packing plants 
and cold storage buildings. 

Concrete has already replaced wood, wherever pos- 
sible, in most of our modern packing plants, due to the 
durability, strength, and fireproofness of this material. 

In connection with the use of Portland cement con- 
crete in packing plants, there has been a tendency to over- 
look certain limitations of this material. When, in conse- 
quence, the concrete has failed to give the expected satis- 
factory result, the blame for this should be laid to the lack 
of precautionary measures rather than to the inherent fault 
of the material. It should be clearly understood that con- 
crete, on account of its porosity, is not in itself waterproof. 
Neither is it of sufficient hardness to resist, for any length 
of time, the continued action of heavy trucking on the 
wearing surface. 

The porosity of concrete is a natural and inseparable 
property of the material. This is partly due to the excessive 
amount of water which is needed to provide a mixture of 
the proper liquid consistency that will permit of the mate- 
rial being properly placed in the form. The water which 
has not entered into chemical reaction with the cement 
will evaporate and impart a porous, capillary nature to the 
concrete. 

The variation of the aggregates of which the concrete 
is mixed leaves a certain percentage of voids, since it is 
impossible to secure an absolute uniform run of crushed 



FLOORS 241 

Stone, gravel and sand. The extent to which the concrete 
will withstand hydrostatic pressure will depend largely upon 
the proper selection of ingredients and the care used in 
the mixing and placing. The aggregates should be graded 
so as to secure the best results in fining the voids. The 
sand should just fill the interstices of the stone and the 
cement should be sufficient in quantity to fill those of the 
sand. The proper proportioning and careful mixing of the 
ingredients are of the greatest importance in good con- 
crete work. It is a mistaken idea that if enough cement 
is put into the concrete the mixing can be neglected. A 
lean mixing of concrete may be far superior to a rich one 
if the mixing of the ingredients is more thorough. 

The concrete should be carefully placed in the forms 
and not dropped from a greater height than is absolutely 
necessary, so as not to separate the ingredients. The mix- 
ture should be well stirred and spaded, particularly along 
the form, so as to avoid honey-combing. The importance 
of having tight forms should not be overlooked, since 
loosely constructed and leaky forms will allow the cement 
and water to seep out. The necessity for carefully joining 
old and new concrete work, where this is required to resist 
water pressure, is evident, when we find water seeping 
through at the joints between different days' w^ork. The 
surface of the old concrete should always be roughened 
and cleaned off before the new concrete is placed, and the 
first batch of this should be a grout of 1-1 cement and sand. 
Waterproofing Concrete 

It is now generally understood that to obtain a satis- 
factory waterproof concrete it is necessary to overcome 
the inherent porosity of the material. This is done either 
by the waterproofed concrete method or by the cement 
coating process. 

In the first method the voids in the concrete are filled 
by a waterproofing compound which is mixed in with the 
mass concrete. 

By the cement coating process a facing of waterproof 
cement mortar is apphed over the rough concrete floor or 



242 FLOORS 

on the wall surface in such a manner as to be securely 
bonded to it. It then acts as a wearing floor, or where it 
is applied to the inner surface of the wall, as a wall plaster. 
Too much confidence, however, should not be placed in 
waterproofing materials unless the concrete itself is of the 
proper mixture and has been carefully placed, since water- 
proofing is not to be looked upon as an all-cure for defective 
materials and workmanship. 

The manufacturer's specifications for mixing and ap- 
plying any waterproofing material should be carefully fol- 
lowed in order to obtain the best results, and the concrete 
should be protected from contact with water or exposure 
to the sun until the final set has been attained and it is 
capable of resisting the destructive action of such exposure. 

Concrete Floor Finish 

The usual method of finishing concrete floors is to put 
down over the concrete slab one to one and one-half inches 
of cement mortar, mixed in the proportion of one part 
Portland cement to two parts of clean sharp sand. This 
is then troweled to an even, smooth surface and left to set 
and harden. Such floors do not work satisfactorily where 
there is much water and the trucking is heavy. This may 
be partially due to improper mixing and workmanship, but 
the principal fault can be laid to the porosity of the wear- 
ing surface. 

A better floor is obtained by using a mixture of cement 
and granite screenings. These should be in two sizes, one 
which will pass through a ^^-ii^ch screen and a larger size 
which will t)ass through a i/2-iiich screen. The screenings 
should be free of dust and mixed together in the propor- 
tion of two parts of flne to three parts of coarse. The 
mortar is mixed in the proportion of one part of Portland 
cement to two parts of screenings and should be applied 
over the concrete slab in one and one-half inch thickness. 

The surface should be troweled to an even surface, 
using a still float. Excessive troweling should be avoided, 
also the practice of adding cement to the surface to temper 



FLOORS 243 

the mortar, since this causes the finished surface to 
crumble and disintegrate. 

The finish should be laid over the rough concrete slab 
before the concrete has hardened. This adds greatly to 
the strength of the floor and makes the construction 
homogeneous. The objection which is sometimes made 
against this method of construction is that the finish may- 
be ruined by being walked on by the workmen erecting the 
false work for the construction above. By carefully pro- 
tecting the finish with dry sand or sawdust after the floor 
has begun to harden, this difficulty can be overcome. The 
floors should be kept damp by constant wetting down for a 
period of 10 days after completion. 

Excessive trucking will wear out even the best floors, 
and it is therefore recommended that the trucking alleys 
be paved with vitrified bricks. These will withstand truck- 
ing for long periods and can easily be replaced when 
required. 
Floor Hardness 

The only way to obtain a satisfactory wearing floor of 
concrete is to mix with the cement mortar a substance 
which will fill the voids in the top surface of the floor and 
thereby prevent granulation. It will also make the floor 
more waterproof, less absorbent and eliminate the dust, 
which is always present on ordinary concrete floors. The 
best hardeners are those whixch are mixed with the sand and 
cement when the topping of the floor is put on. They fill 
the pores of the concrete sufficiently deep below the top 
surface to make this a dense, hard body, which will with- 
stand the action of water and truck wheels much longer 
than the ordinary cement and sand finish. There are other 
hardeners which are applied as a surface treatment or filler, 
but their value, in packing house fioors, would be only on 
account of their Rustproof or waterproof qualities. 

In applying any of the many excellent hardeners on 
the market, the manufacturer's specifications should be 
followed in order to obtain the best results. A word of cau- 
tion may here be said against the use of any of the untried 



244 FLOORS 

hardeners or waterproofing materials on the market. 
Record of years of actual service in buildings ought to be 
the only guide which the purchaser should follow in select- 
ing the material. 

Brick Floors and Paving 

The use of brick and tile, as a wearing surface, over 
wood or concrete floors, has been generally adopted for 
killing floors, loading platforms, live stock pens and run- 
ways, and it is also frequently used for the floors of truck- 
ing alleys in meat curing rooms and cold storage buildings. 

Only selected hard burned, vitrified brick is suitable 
for floors where there is much water. The common hard 
building brick is too porous and absorbent and will quickly 
wear out. The vitrifled paving brick of the ordinary type 
is too heavy for use inside of the building. There are, how- 
ever, special-made bricks and tile, which are well suited for 
all purposes. 

The Garden City Sand Co. of Chicago, 111., makes a 
good vitrifled brick of a size 2x2x71/4 inches with lugs on 
the side to separate the bricks as they are laid. 

The McLean Firebrick Co. of Pittsburgh, Pa., makes a 
hard-burned, vitrified floor tile 4x8x1 1/^ inches thick. This 
Is made in two shades, light and dark brown, and makes a 
very serviceable and sanitary floor. 

The bricks are laid without mortar in a 34-inch bed of 
sand. The joints should be broken and should not exceed 
one-eighth of an inch in thickness. After the floor is laid 
the surface is slushed with Portland cement grouting and 
the joints thoroughly filled and grouted. The slushing 
should be repeated until all joints are completely filled. Hot 
asphalt is sometimes used instead of cement for filling the 
joints, but it is not recommended for use in places where 
hot water or grease is spilled on the floor. 

Where brick paving is placed over cellar floors there 
should be a base of four inches of concrete laid on the 
ground as a foundation for the paving. 

Pavements in live stock pens are laid with common 
vitrified paving brick, placed over an 8-inch bed of drj^ 



FLOORS 245 

cinders, which is thoroughly tamped down and evenly- 
graded to the drain outlets. The brick is laid with a cushion 
of sand and the joints slushed with cement grouting in the 
manner specified above. 

Pavements of inclined runways must be laid so as to 
provide secure footholds for the live stock; therefore the 
brick should be laid in continuous rows, with three bricks 
flat and alternating with one course on edge. The edge- 
wise brick should stop within 12 inches of each side of the 
run in order to allow the water to pass down. 

The cost of a brick pavement laid over a concrete base 
will average about $1.35 per square yard, and laid over a 
cinder fill the cost will average about $1.00 per square yard. 

The quantity of brick required, when laid on edge, is 
60 brick per square yard, and when laid flat, 36 brick per 
square yard. 



CHAPTER XX 
CONSTRUCTION DETAILS 

Floor Gutters 

These are made of concrete, wood or cast-iron, accord- 
ing to the construction of the floor in which they are placed. 
The advantage of gutters over other types of floor drains 
is the rapid disposal of the water on the floor, and in the' 
reduced number of drain outlets, traps and plumbing con- 
nections needed to carry off the water to the sewers. The 
objection which is raised by many against the use of gut- 
ters is based principally upon the difficulty of keeping them 
watertight and the inconvenience of trucking over the gut- 
ter boards. Gutters in wood floors are not as satisfactory 
as in concrete construction and they must be carefully 
built if they are to remain tight. Cast-iron gutters are 
sometimes used in wood floors and then always in sections 
about eight feet long, bolted together. The joints are 
caulked with lead to make them watertight. They are 
expensive and not very satisfactory where there is much 
vibration in the floor, which is generally the case in pack- 
ing houses. 

A better construction would be to line the wooden 
gutters with copper or tin and thoroughly solder all joints 
after they had been nailed. 

Cutters in Concrete Floors 

In Figure 139 is illustrated a method of constructing 
the gutters in concrete floors. The sides are made with 
6-inch channel irons set 10 inches apart and anchored to 
the concrete with i/^-inch bolts on six-foot centers. The 
bottom of the gutter is finished with Portland cement mor- 



CONSTRUCTION DETAILS 



247 



tar and made to slope with a 3-inch pitch towards the drain 
outlet. This is placed in the concrete floor before the 
cement has set and is made with a 4-inch threaded nipple, 
12 inches long, onto which a standard 4-inch pipe flange 
has been screwed to hold the nipple in position. The gut- 
ter boards are made with two 2x4-inch oak boards bolted 



-/e " 2"GALVftNIZED IfciON 
&" CHANNEL. 




FIG. 139 — DETAIL OF GUTTER IN CONCRETE FLOOR. 



to galvanized iron carriages %x2 inches, spaced four feet 
apart. The bolts are Vo inch in diameter, with countersunk 
head and galvanized. 

Wood Gutters 

In Figure 14(his illustrated the construction of a wood 
gutter. The sides are made of 4xlO-inch and the bottom 
of 3xl2-inch clear flr. The sides are rabeted one inch for 
the bottom piece, which is placed with a slope of four inches 
toward the drain outlet. The joint is painted with white 



248 



CONSTRUCTION DETAILS 



lead and oil and two lengths of seine cord dipped in paint 
are stretched from end to end, before the gutter is put 
together. The sides are drawn up tight with %-inch bolts, 
spaced two feet on centers. When the gutter must be made 
in sections, the lumber should be bought in the largest 
length obtainable, in order to reduce the number of joints. 
The ends must be halved and thoroughly painted before 



-S". E- PAVING BRICK 
-CEMENT JOINTCl 
-3AND FILLER. 



A" GUTTER BOARD3, 




FIG. 140 — DETAIL, OF WOOD GUTTER 



they are put together and then bolted with i/2-inch carriage 
bolts, placed with the head on the inside of the gutter. The 
joints in the side pieces should never be placed at the same 
point as the joints in the bottom piece. The 4-inch nipple 
for the drain outlet is put on with two lock nuts and 
screwed up with lead gaskets between the lock nut and the 
wood. 



CONSTRUCTION DETAILS 



249 



The floor is finished at the edges of the gutter with an 
oak curb, l%x4 inches, securely spiked with galvanized 
iron spikes, 16 inches apart. 

The gutter boards are made in the same manner as 
specified for concrete gutters and the carrying irons are 
housed into the oak curb. 



-CEMENT FlNOtt 



£"x4"GUTTEU ^/s'x E' GALVANIZED ICON 




3P1QOT TR^P 



CLLKNOUT 



FIG. 141 — DETAIL OF GUTTER IN CELLAR FLOOR. 



Gutters in Cellar Floors 

In Figure 141 is illustrated a gutter designed for con- 
crete floors in cellars. The curb at the floor line is protected 
by 2-inch angle irons anchored to the concrete with i^-inch 
anchor bolts, six inches long and spaced six feet apart. The 
drain outlet and trap must be placed before the gutter is 
built. 



250 



CONSTRUCTION DETAILS 



Inserts in Concrete Ceilings 

With reinforced concrete construction, it is necessary 
to provide inserts or bolts in the ceihng for the support of 
the piping, shafting, electric wiring, or any other equipment 
which will be hung from the ceiling. 

Inserts are preferable to bolts because they are made 
a part of the concrete slab and the bolt for supporting the 
equipment can be slipped in or out afterwards. On the 
other hand, if the bolts are built into the slab they cannot 
be renewed, if they rust out, except by drilling the concrete 
for the new bolt. 

Inserts should be placed in the ceiling wherever any 
equipment is required for immediate or future use and 
where the future requirements cannot be definitely 
arranged for at the time the building is erected, it is always 




PIG. 142 — DETAIL OF TRACK SUPPORTS. 



a good plan to provide inserts over the entire ceiling. They 
should be spaced about eight feet apart, so that the lumber 
for supporting the machinery can be bolted to the ceiling 
wherever requirements will demand. 

Detail of Overhead Track Supports 

In Figure 142 is illustrated a method of supporting 
overhead trolley tracks from a concrete ceiling. Inserts 
are placed about six feet apart and support the %-inch bolts 
for the track timbers. These are made of 6x8-inch yellow 
pine and hung at the proper height for the track. When 
this is placed high and very close to the ceiling, it will be 
necessary to make the concrete ceiling above sufficiently 
high to allow at least three inches for the tightening up of 
the hanger-bolts. 



CONSTRUCTION DETAILS 



251 



■ ■ " . -— -" . 




' , 


. -T^ slNJtOT ' 


(t 


1 ii 


4'-6"-5BlDCK.~|- 


[^ U ?a" BOLT 


! 


:; 4-- 6- TIMBER LENGTH TO OUIT j, , i 


V 


BOLTO 5PACE2 4'-0' C.TOC. 

4'-0' 




V^^ =:a3T ibon 

1 
J. 


i 

1 



J^loje.; Tfii:i owcNoiON will 
VARY WITH :mze of 

DROP MANCEE. 



IND View ^^ 

FIG. 143— DETAIL, OF SHAFT HANGER SUPPORTS. 




S'C I tOiLTTL) 
2"LY£_ BOLT 
ANOHOii- liiDD^ 
fe'-O" LONO 



LOADiNO COUBJ 



,. SCJC_i^ p^iViNO 




FIG. 144 — DETAIL OF LOADING COURT — SHOWING AWNING 
OVER PLATFORM. 



252 



CONSTRUCTION DETAILS 



Details of Support for Shafting 

In Figure 143 is illustrated a method of supporting the 
shafting from the concrete ceiling. The hangers are 
fastened to two 4x8-inch yellow pine timbers, which are 
bolted to the ceiling with %-inch bolts. The timbers are 




FIG. 145— SECTION SHOWING DRIVE FOR OLEO PRESS. 



CONSTRUCTION DETAILS 253 

laid flat and placed as far apart as will be needed to provide 
support for the shaft hangers. This distance should be 
determined by figuring the size of the hanger before the 
inserts are placed. 



CHAPTER XXI 
PAINTING 

Paints and Painting 

Paints are now extensively used in packing houses and 
cold storage buildings where formerly the walls and wood- 
work were left unpainted. 

It is one of the requirements of the Bureau of Animal 
Industry that tke woodwork in packing house departments 
where edible products are handled or stored, must be 
painted. In rooms where there is much moisture, the paint 
must be non-absorbent and must, therefore, be either an 
oil paint or a good grade of varnish. In rooms where the 
air is dry, cold or hot water paints may be used. 

The Bureau recommends the use of paints of light 
color, so that any accumulation of dust or dirt can be read- 
ily seen and removed, thereby assisting in maintaining 
cleanliness. All materials used in the preparation of 
paints must be free of strong odors, particularly when used 
in refrigerated storage rooms. 

Paint is sold in cans or barrels, mixed and ready for 
use, or it can be bought in the form of a paste in 25, 50 
and 100-lb. kegs, which paste requires thinning with oil or 
turpentine before it is used. 

Pigments are sold in powdered form and added accord- 
ing to the color desired. 

The proportion of ingredients in paints will depend 
largely upon whether it is to be applied to masonry, wood 
or metal and how many coats of paint are to be used. Tur- 
pentine should not be added to paint except when it is used 
over old work, to make it adhere better to the old paint. 
There is a great variety of factory-made paints and enamels 



PAINTING 255 

which are put up in liquid form, ready to use, and where 
brands of known quahty and durabihty are obtained, they 
will, undoubtedly, give better results than if the paint is 
mixed on the job. This is particularly true of metal paints 
and enamel finishes. White paints which are made with 
white lead should not be used in rooms where the air con- 
tains much hydrogen sulphide. This acts on the white 
lead in the paint and quickly turns this to a dark color. 
Only white zinc and oil should be used for light colored 
paints. 

Paints for Brick and Concrete Walls 

Foremost among the paints for painting masonry walls 
and plastering, particularly for interior work, are the China 
Wood Oil paints. They dry quickly in moist atmospheres 
and produce a waterproof surface which may easily be 
washed at any time. These paints will, when properly 
mixed, outlast the ordinary white lead and linseed oil paint, 
which is commonly used in packing house work. 

Paint for Woodwork 

All exterior woodwork should be preserved by painting 
with at least two coats of white lead and linseed oil paint. 
The woodwork inside the building should either be painted 
or varnished. 

In mill constructed buildings the Underwriters object 
to oil paint or varnishes being used on the structural parts 
of the building, since they increase the fire hazard. They 
recommend the use of white-wash and fire-retarding paints 
in rooms where the moisture in the air will not prevent this 
kind of paint from adhering. The Bureau of Animal Indus- 
try strongly objects to whitewash l^eing used in rooms 
where edible meat products are manufactured or stored, 
and a fire-retarding paint is therefor recommended. 

All wood in concrete building should be painted with 
two or more coats of white lead and linseed oil paint. 

In coolers, sales-rooms, and packing rooms, where an 
attractive appearance is of more importance than in other 
parts of the plant, the woodwork may be finished with one 



256 PAINTING 

or two coats of white enamel paint applied over one or two 
coats of priming. 

Paint for Steelwork 

The exposed steelwork in packing plants needs to be 
painted thoroughly and at regular intervals, on account of 
the unusually severe corrosive atmospheric condition which 
always exists around packing houses. 

The best paints for steel have been proven, by experi- 
ments, to be: graphite, carbon, iron oxides, and red lead, 
in the order named, with a slight preference for the first 
two paints. 

The paint should be thoroughly worked into all cor- 
ners and crevices and should be applied as thickly as the 
painter can put it on. 

Red lead should only be used for the priming coat as a 
preserver and must be covered over with other paints to 
protect it from the action of gas and sulphur. 
Cold Water Paint 

Cold water paints are much used on brick and concrete 
walls and on rough boards and fences in stock yards. They 
are less expensive than oil paints and are therefore used 
on cheaper work. They are sold in powdered form and 
mixed with water in the proportion of five pounds of pow- 
der to one gallon of water. This amount of paint will cover 
about 200 square feet of rough surface and about 300 
square feet when applied on surfaced lumber. Cold water 
paints are preferable to whitewash in that they do not 
flake off as readily. 
Whitewash 

This has been extensively used both in packing houses 
and cold storage plants. The Government now objects to 
its use in any packing house departments where edible meat 
products are handled or stored. It flakes off on walls and 
ceilings and is therefore objectionable. 

Whitewashing is the cheapest way of improving the 
appearance of walls and woodwork and will prevent the 
woodwork from being affected by stale odors and thus 
taint the goods in storage. 



PAINTING 257 

It should be applied in two coats on unpainted wood 
and the first coat should be applied very thin and be thor- 
oughly dried out before the second coat is put on. 

Whitewash is made with pure, white lime, slacked in 
hot water. To this is often added salt, powdered rice, 
powdered whiting, glue, cement, or other ingredients to 
make it more white and durable. 

The Government specification for whitewash is as fol- 
lows: Slake half a bushel of quick Hme with boiling water, 
keep it covered during the process. Strain it and add a peck 
of salt, dissolved in warm water, three pounds of ground rice 
put into boiling water and reduced to a thin paste, half a 
pound of powdered Spanish whiting, a pound of clean glue, 
dissolved in warm water; mix these well together and let 
the mixture stand for several days. Keep the wash, thus 
prepared, in a kettle or portable furnace and put it on as 
hot as possible with either painters' or whitewash brushes. 



CHAPTER XXII 
INSURANCE AND FIRE PROTECTION 

Introduction 

The recommendations of the fire insurance companies 
should be carefully considered in the planning and construc- 
tion of packing plants. Their recommendations are based 
upon experience gained through untold numbers of fires in 
all classes of buildings, and are, therefore, to be looked 
upon as the last word in safe and sane construction. 

Those who regard first cost as the one essential to be 
considered when building, will undoubtedly object to many 
features, which may seem to them unnecessary and expen- 
sive, but, all of which have the one object in view, namely, 
to reduce the fire risk to the minimum. 

By following the rules recommended by the insurance 
companies, the owner knows that he will obtain the lowest 
possible rate of insurance on his plant, and he may also 
feel assured that he has not only safeguarded the lives of 
his employees but has done much that will insure him a 
permanency in his plant investment. 

Until recent years the cost of fire insurance to the pack- 
ers was high, compared with the rate paid by other manu- 
facturing industries. This was partly due to the nature 
of the business with the numerous by-product processes in 
which fires will always be of frequent occurrence. The 
main cause, however, of the high rates, was the grouping 
of large values and many processes between fire walls, 
under one roof, in disregard of the fundamental principles 
for the conservation of property, upon which the insurance 
companies base their rates. 



INSURANCE AND FIRE PROTECTION 259 

The many large and destructive fires in the past, caused 
by this neglect, therefore, made it necessary for the com- 
panies to place their rates on a basis which seemed high 
when compared with similar buildings in other industries, 
and it is imperative that the owner comply with the prin- 
cipal insurance requirements, if he intends to carry insur- 
ance and expects to obtain a favorable rating on his plant. 

The increased cost of buildings constructed with the 
view of reducing the insurance premiums, is so small, in 
comparison with the benefits derived, that all new buildings 
should embody every important recommendation made by 
the insurance companies. 

Different basis rates have been established, based upon 
the principal occupancy of the buildings, so that each 
building within a plant is rated differently. Thus, a cold 
storage warehouse would be rated lower than a slaughter 
house and this again lower than a tank house or fertilizer 
building. 

This should be considered, when planning the arrange- 
ment of a plant, so as to obtain full advantage of the various 
ratings. Buildings which have two or more classes of 
occupancy, will take the basis rate of the class which is 
considered the greatest fire hazard and this rate will apply 
to the entire building. 

Fireproof construction should be used where the avail- 
able funds will permit the increased expenditure. The dif- 
ference of cost between fireproof and mill construction will 
be between 10 and 15 per cent, depending upon the char- 
acter of the buildings and the locality in which they are 
built. 

The saving in the insurance rate as well as in the main- 
tenance of the plant, will greatly reduce the yearly operat- 
ing cost. 

The improved sanitary conditions and the lower 
charges for depreciation in fireproof buildings, are other 
features which should be carefully considered before the 
question of construction is finally decided. 



260 INSURANCE AND FIRE PROTECTION 

Area of Buildings 

One of the most important recommendations of the 
insurance companies is that the floor area of a building 
should not be excessive. The area of the building should be 
governed by the type of construction, height, and location, 
and these factors are all taken into consideration by the 
insurance raters in arriving at a penalty charge for excess 
area in their rating schedule. 
Fire Walls 

Standard fire walls of brick must be built between two 
buildings adjoining each other and all communication be- 
tween the buildings should be through fireproof vestibules, 
built around the doorways. For this reason, the doorways 
ought to come one above the other and in the same position 
on all floors, so that the vestibule can be built continuous 
from cellar to roof. 
Vestibules 

The vestibule is generally made large enough to in- 
clude the elevator and stairway, with a trucking passage 
not less than eight feet wide in front of the elevators. 

All door openings must be provided with approved flre- 
doors on each side of the wall, in order to comply with the 
standard requirements of the Underwriters. 

Where ik becomes necessary to place a direct opening 
in a flre wall, that is, without a vestibule being built around 
the opening, there is always an additional insurance charge, 
even when standard flre doors are used on the opening; 
therefore, the practice of placing doors in flre walls indis- 
criminately should be avoided, when this can be done with- 
out too much inconvenience in handling the products from 
one building to another. 

Exposures 

Practical requirements may sometimes compel the 
designer to conflict with the insurance recommendations. 
It may be advisable, in many instances, to separate two 
buildings and give light and ventilation to both, but it may 
not be practical to place them sufficiently far apart to elim- 
inate an exposure hazard. 



INSURANCE AND FIRE PROTECTION 261 

To avoid any exposure charge which may be imposed, 
it becomes necessary to protect all exposed openings with 
approved fire shutters, doors, or wire glass metal frame 
windows. 
Outside Communications 

Bridges and passageways used for communication be- 
tween buildings, should be of fireproof construction and, if 
built of wood, covered on the outside with metal. Covered 
bridges require fire doors on all openings leading to the 
bridge and it is, therefore, cheaper to build these struc- 
tures with open sides, where possible. Loading platforms, 
icing sheds, runways and similar structures, which are gen- 
erally built of wood, will increase the insurance rate on the 
adjoining building and they, therefore, should be of fire- 
proof construction. The writer knows of a fireproof cooler 
building where the insurance rate was reduced 17 cents, 
when the construction of a platform and awning which was 
built on two sides of the building, was changed from wood 
to fireproof construction. 

Fire Doors 

The great importance of fire walls in preventing the 
spread of fire, and the fact that they are liable to be severely 
exposed to fire for considerable periods, makes it essential 
that all openings in such walls be protected by the most effi- 
cient methods. Only such fire doors should be used as have 
been shown by experience and tests to furnish a high de- 
gree of fire protection if installed on both sides of the wall. 

There are two general types of fire doors which are 
recommended by the insurance companies, one being an 
all steel door, hung from an angle-iron frame, and the 
other is a tin covered wooden door. Which is hung either 
from an angle-iron frame or from hinge-bolts built into 
the brick wall. There is some difference of opinion as to 
the efficiency of the two types, and it is well to confer with 
the rating or inspection bureau of the insurance companies 
having jurisdiction over the territory in which the plant is 
located, before deciding on the type. For instance, the 
Chicago Board of Underwriters recommends the steel door 



262 INSURANCE AND FIRE PROTECTION 

while in the Minneapolis district the tin clad door is pre- 
ferred. 

Where it is immaterial to the Underwriters which type 
of door is used, the author recommends that the steel 
door be installed in packing plants and cold storage build- 
ings. The tin covered door is too easily damaged by 
trucks or barrels being knocked up against it and when 
once the tin covering is torn and punctured so that it 
leaves the wood exposed, the value of the door as a protec- 
tion against fire is void. This is the principal reason why 
tin covered doors are not permitted in Chicago. The expe- 
rience has been that the doors are frequently damaged 
and that this remains neglected by the owner who does not, 
as a general rule, repair the door until he is compelled to 
do so by the insurance inspector. Another objection to the 
door is that the wood inside the tin covering is easily 
attacked by dry-rot fungi, which has, in many instances 
known to the Underwriters, destroyed the wood in the 
course of a few years. 

The Underwriters' Laboratories, Inc., makes the fol- 
lowing comment upon tin-clad fire doors with 3-ply wood 
cores: "Standard tin-clad fire doors are fairly substantial 
in construction, practical under most conditions, and easj' 
to install. Doors on both sides of the wall furnish a high 
degree of resistance to fire and to the transmission of heat 
for long periods of exposure, and resist fire streams well. 
Under adverse conditions of service, they are liable to dete- 
riorate rapidly and are difficult to maintain." 

The steel door has none of the above objections and 
will outlast any tin covered door, if it is kept painted. The 
only objection, aside from the cost, which can be made 
against the steel door, is that it has a tendency to buckle 
under the heat of a severe fire. But, even if the door on 
the side of the wall nearest the fire should fail, it will offer 
enough resistance to prevent the door on the other side of 
the wall from being similarly affected. 

This was clearly demonstrated in 1914, when a pack- 
ing plant in Nashville, Tenn., was partly destroyed by fire. 



INSURANCE AND FIRE PROTECTION 263 

The complete destruction of the plant was prevented by a 
fire wall in which all openings were protected by steel doors. 
When the building collapsed, it was seen that the steel doors, 
in some instances, had buckled away from the frame, but 
in no instance had the second door been damaged. 

The Underwriters' Laboratories, Inc., have made the 
following comment upon standard iron doors of vault pat- 
tern: "They are substantial in construction, practical 
under most conditions and easy to install. Doors on both 
sides of wall furnish a high degree of resistance to fire 
and to the transmission of heat for long periods of expo- 
sure. They resist fire streams well, and are durable and 
easy to maintain." 

Rolling steel fire doors are often installed where 
swinging or sliding doors cannot be employed. They are 
accepted as good fire protection by the Underwriters, if of 
approved construction. Their comment upon this type of 
door is as follows: "Standard rolling steel fire doors are 
substantial in construction, practical under most condi- 
tions, but are difficult to install. Doors on both sides of 
wall furnish a high degree of resistance to fire and a fairly 
high resistance to the transmission of heat for long periods 
of exposure. They resist fire streams well, are durable, 
fairly easy to maintain, and are capable of being installed in 
locations where space limitations prevent the installation of 
other types of doors. They are difficult to operate, espe- 
cially after they have closed automatically, and their use 
in any given case should be considered in its relation to 
effect upon hazard to life." 

Rolling doors should not be used in firewalls where the 
size of the openings exceeds 80 squaire feet. 

Fire doors for openings in vertical shafts, such as ele- 
vators, stair-wells, and beef drops will prevent the rapid 
spread of fire from floor to floor. While they are subject to 
fire exposure of the same severity as doors in firewalls, the 
conditions in vertical shafts are such that single fire doors 
can safely be employed at each opening in standard built 
shafts. 



264 INSURANCE AND FIRE PROTECTION 

This is permitted by the Underwriters for the reason 
that the failure of two doors, always located a consider- 
able distance apart, must occur before fire can pass from 
one story to another. 
Fire-Retarding Windows 

These windows, in order to be approved by the Under- 
writers, must be examined at the factory in which they are 
made, by the Underwriters' Laboratories, Inc. If the con- 
struction is passed, the windows are labeled with a metal 
tag which is riveted to the frame. The label is evidence of 
proper construction and material. 

The most common type of fire retarding window is 
made with a hollow metal frame and sash, glazed with 
wire-glass. The maximum size of frame which may be used 
is 5x9 feet, when the frame contains two or more sash; 
with single sash the opening must be limited to four feet, 
six inches by five feet, except that single sash casement 
windows may be made with three feet, six inches by nine 
feet frame. The glass must not be less than i/4-inch thick 
and cannot be over 48 inches in either dimension or exceed 
720 square inches. Where openings are in excess of 5x9 
feet, mullion windows may be used; in which case the mul- 
lion must be reinforced by five-inch I beams protected by 
a fireproof material. 

Wrought iron window frames can be used to advantage 
in packing plants when the unusually severe corrosive at- 
mospheric conditions limit the life of the ordinary sheet 
metal windows. The frame and sash may be galvanized 
and the size of the glass must not exceed 216 square inches 
in fire-retarding windows. The largest size opening allowed 
is forty-five square feet or 5'-0"x 9'-0". The pivoted or sta- 
tionary window seems to be the best adapted when wrought 
iron frames are used. If the stationary window is installed, 
the frame may be dispensed with and the sash placed in the 
opening and securely anchored to the wall. 
Skylights 

This term is used by the Underwriters for any open- 
ing through the roof for the admission of light. In pack- 



INSURANCE AND FIRE PROTECTION 265 

ing houses the most common type of skyhght is the monitor 
or lantern type, which is generally made continuous as a 
raised section of the roof, with vertical sash. The peaked 
skyhght with inchned sides is generally used over stairs and 
elevator shafts, and there are flat skyhghts, sawtoothed 
roofs, ventilating skylights, etc. 

The monitor skylight should be built to conform with 
the construction of the roof of which it forms a part. When 
this is of wood, the monitor must be covered on the outside 
with tin and when the roof is of concrete the sides of the 
monitor may be made of brick, tile or concrete. All frames 
and sash must be of galvanized or wrought iron and the 
sash glazed with 14-iiich wire glass. 

Flat or peaked skylights must be made with galvanized 
iron frames, riveted to angle irons and securely fastened 
to the roof construction. The glass must be wire glass 
1/4-inch thick, or may be plain, clear glass y2-inch thick, 
protected with heavy wire screens. The panes must not be 
over 20 inches wide nor exceed 720 square inches in area. 

Fire Protection 

The private fire protection of packing plants and cold 
storage buildings should be of the highest type of efficiency. 
The value of the products which are held in storage is gen- 
erally high and in packing plants, the hazard in many of 
the manufacturing and by-products processes is unusually 
severe, and ample fire protection is therefore strongly urged 
by the insurance companies. 

Provision should be made for an ample water supply, 
made properly applicable to any part of the plant through 
standpipes and hose. When a natural source of water sup- 
ply is not available, storage reservoii*s of ample capacity 
should be provided and a firepump installed which will fur- 
nish the required pressure to all standpipes. These features 
all tend to materially reduce the insurance rate and will 
furnish immediate means for fighting a fire once started. 
Sprinklers 

Up to four years ago the insurance companies were 
somewhat skeptical as to the efficiency of automatic sprink- 



266 INSURANCE AND ICE PROTECTION 

lers in a greater part of packing plants. There was also ob- 
jections on the part of the owners to the installation of sprink- 
lers on account of loss of headroom and obstructions to 
manufacturing processes. Today, however, the insurance 
companies are strongly advocating sprinkler protection and 
they are allowing practically the same credit in rates as 
allowed in the average manufacturing plant. This credit 
will range from 70 to 80% of the rate on unsprinkled 
buildings. 

Another feature which should be considered when 
sprinklers are installed is that the area and height of build- 
ings are not penalized in rate. This may save the cost and 
inconvenience of fire walls, vestibules, etc., where these can 
be omitted by the installation of sprinklers. 

In view of the now established efficiency of automatic 
sprinklers and the attractive reduction in rate, it will be 
advisable to design new buildings so that immediate or 
future installations can be properly taken care of. 

Mistakes and costly changes can be avoided in the 
construction of plants, if the recommendations of the Un- 
derwriters are carefully considered beforehand by all parties 
interested. 

It is the experience of the writer that the insurance 
companies welcome an opportunity to assist, in an advisory 
capacity, at all times. 

Recommendations made by the Chicago Board of Fire 
Underwriters for the Construction of Packing Houses 

The following recommendations are for mill con- 
structed buildings. They conform to the general recom- 
mendations as made by the National Board of Fire Under- 
writers, although they differ from them in some respects, 
being more severe in several of their requirements. 

Area 

Maximum — 10,000 square feet. Measurements to be 
made from the outer edge of enclosing walls and centre 
of dividing or party walls. 



INSURANCE AND FIRE PROTECTION 267 

For each 2,500 square feet of area in excess of 10,000, 
there will be an additional charge of one cent for each story 
of building, excluding basement. 

For area less than 10,000 square feet, deduct for each 
2,500 square feet, one cent for each story in height. These 
additions and deductions to be made from the following 
basis rates for the heights of the buildings. 

1 story and basement — basis 30c 

2 story and basement — basis 35c 

3 story and basement — basis 40c 

4 story and basement — basis 45c 

5 story and basement — basis 55c 

6 story and basement — basis 65c 

7 story and basement — basis 80c 

8 story and basement — basis 100c 

For each additional story over 8, add 25c. 

Walls 

All outside walls or party walls to be of the thickness 
given in the table following. 

Party walls to extend four feet above the roof and be 
16 inches in thickness and properly coped. 

Parapet walls to be 16 inches in thickness and to ex- 
tend four feet above the roof line. All parapet walls must 
be properly coped. 

TABLE OF WALL THICKNESS IN INCHES 

Basement 1st 2d 3d 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 

1-story 16 16 

2-story 16 16 16 

3-story 16 16 16 16 

4-story 20 20 16 16 ^ 16 

5-story 24 20 20 16 16 16 

6-story 24 20 20 20 16 16 16 

7-story 24 20 20 20 20 16 16 16 

8-story 24 24 24 20 20 20 16 16 16 

9-story 28 24 24 24 20 20 20 16 16 16 

10-story 32 28 28 24 24 24 20 20 20 16 16 

Communication 

All communication between adjoining buildings to be 
through fireproof -vestibules, with openings protected by 
double fire doors, built of standard construction with No. 10 
plate iron. For door openings not through vestibules, there 
is a charge of ten cents for the first and two cents for each 
additional opening. 



268 INSURANCE AND FIRE PROTECTION 

Vestibules 

To be built with not less than 16-inch walls which must 
be carried at least three feet above the roof line and prop- 
erly coped. Floors and roof to be made of fireproof con- 
struction. Stairs and elevators in vestibules to be of non- 
combustible material with iron or cement treads for stairs. 
Floors 

Thickness of mill floors to be not less than 31/2 inches. 
Floor joists and girders to be not less than 72 square inches. 
Bridge or Viaduct Connections 

If of open construction and door openings protected 
by double fire doors, no charge. For covered and enclosed 
frame or ironclad viaducts with approved double fire doors 
or vestibule, five cents charge. 

For covered and enclosed frames or ironclad viaducts 
without approved double fire doors, 10 cents charge. 

Sectional Area 

All supporting columns not less than 10x10 inches sec- 
tional area. No bearing timber to be supported by unpro- 
tected iron or steel. 

For floors deflcient in thickness (less than 3% inches), 
add one cent for each floor per inch of deficiency. 

For supporting timbers deficient in size (less than 72 
square inches), add two cents. 

For timbers supported by unprotected iron or steel, add 
five cents for first fioor and two cents for each additional 
floor. If supported by unprotected cast iron columns, add 
one-fourth of the above charge. 

Ceilings 

If ceiling joists are covered on the underside with wood 
boards or wood lath and plaster, add for each story, two 
cents. 

For plaster on metal lath, leaving hollow space, add 
one cent. 

Roof 

Roof boards to be not less than two inches thick and 
all supporting timber not less than 72 inches in sectional 



INSURANCE AND FIRE PROTECTION 269 

area. For deficient thickness of roof boards, add one cent, 
for deficient size of timber, add two cents, roof materials 
must be of non-combustible materials. 

Skylights 

Size not to exceed one-half the area of the roof. Sky- 
light frames to be of metal or tile, if of wood, metal-clad. 
All glass to be wire glass. Wood skylights or skylights with 
ordinary glass add one cent for each 10 square feet of sky- 
light, not exceeding a charge of 25 cents. 

Elevators 

To be placed in fireproof vestibules where the arrange- 
ment will permit. When otherwise located, to be inclosed 
with selfsupporting brick shafts and extend four feet above 
the roof. All openings to be provided with fire doors at 
each landing. Roof of elevator shaft to be covered with 
skylight or have ventilator at least one-twentieth of the 
area of the shaft, except when there are windows in shaft, 
which open into street, alley or court. 

Elevators which are enclosed in 4-inch tile partitions 
supported from the floor construction at each story and 
with approved fire doors, add one cent charge for each 
story and one-half the charge for each additional elevator. 

Stairway 

To be placed in fireproof vestibules where arrangement 
will permit. When located in buildings, to be enclosed in 
brick shaft with self closing fire doors, skylight and venti- 
lator in roof as prescribed for elevator shafts. 

Partitions 

To be avoided where possible. When built, should be 
of fireproof materials, tile, mackolite lor plastered on steel 
studding and anchored to the fioor and ceiling. For 1 34- 
inch dressed and matched plank partitions, add for each 
floor subdivided, two cents. 

Exposures 

All outside openings exposed within 100 feet, to be 
protected by approved iron shutters or approved wire glass 



270 INSURANCE AND FIRE PROTECTION 

windows. For brick buildings where this is done, no exposure 
charge will be made. 
Stand Pipes 

All buildings of an area of 10,000 square feet, should be 
equipped with four-inch stand pipe, located inside of fire- 
proof vestibule and equipped with standard hose connec- 
tions, hose and hose reel on each floor. 

Packing and Slaughter House Schedule for the Middle West 
Outside of Chicago 

The following recommendations for the construction 
of packing plants outside of Chicago, have been made by 
the insurance companies and where they are strictly fol- 
lowed, the plant will be rated as a standard plant; if the 
required fire protection is also provided. 
Construction 

Brick or stone, standard mill or semi-mill construction 
fioors and roof, with bays at least three feet (to centres). 
Area 

Not to exceed 10,000 square feet on each floor. 
Height 

Not over three stories and basement, or 40 feet. 
Walls 

Standard thickness for one-story building to be 16 
inches; two-story building 20 inches to 16 inches, and three- 
story building 24 inches to 20 inches to 16 inches. Division 
and all outside walls to be at least 16 inches at the top story, 
and division walls to extend at least four feet above roof, 
in parapet and coped. 
Ventilators, Texas or Additions on Roof 

To be entirely of metal or tile and not to exceed one- 
half the area of roof, windows and light openings to be 
protected by wire-glass or screens. 
Stairways and Elevators 

To be in brick tower or vestibule, with approved fire 
doors at floor openings or if the elevator is inside of the 
building, to have automatic hatches. Stairs inside to have 
self-closing doors. 



INSURANCE AND FIRE PROTECTION 271 

Boilers 

To be outside or if in adjoining building, to be thor- 
oughly cut off by approved fire doors. 
Boiler Stack 

To be brick or metal stack on brick base, the base ris- 
ing at least four feet above boiler-house roof. 
Heating 

Steam or hot-water. Steam pipes to be protected with 
metal caps or thimbles of asbestos paper and tin. 
Fire Protection 

To be located within city limits and protected by city 
water hydrants and city fire department, also to have fire 
pump of not less than 500 gallons capacity per minute 
(where maximum capacity exceeds 250 hogs and (or) 50 
cattle per day), with suction in reservoir (or other supply) 
of at least 100,000 gallons of water, supplying standpipes 
of not less than two and one-half or three inches in diam- 
eter, running through warehouse or factory buildings, with 
standard couplings on each floor and on roof, to which hose 
can be attached. 
Fire Hose 

To be not less than two or two and one-half inches 
size, attached to standpipe on each floor and on roof, suffi- 
cient to reach all parts of the house. 
Fire Buckets 

To have fire buckets filled with salt water, or chemical 
fire extinguishers and fire ax on each floor. 
Ladders 

Permanent on each building. 
Deficiency Charges ^ 

The following are the principal deficiency charges for 
brick buildings, which can be avoided by careful planning 
and construction. - 
Height 

For each additional story over three or each additional 
10 feet over 40 and not over 80 feet, add 0.05, if over 80 
feet add, in addition to the above charges, 0.26. 



272 INSURANCE AND FIRE PROTECTION 

Area 

Not to exceed 10,000 square feet. For each additional 
5,000 square feet over 10,000 add .10. 
Walls 

If outside walls or division walls are not standard, add 
to each building or division for each wall .05. If division 
walls are not built as parapet walls at least four feet above 
the roof and properly coped add .05. If brick walls are 
furred inside with wood, add .05. Roofs, shingle or board, 
add 0.26. 
Skylights, or Additions to Roof 

If constructed of wood and covered with iron and slate, 
add .16. 

If exceeding one-half the area of the roof, add to the 
above item, .26. 

Note — The above charges do not apply to condenser 
structures on the roof. For wooden ventilators on roof, 
add .06. 
Stairs 

If open or cased with wood and not located in brick 
vestibules or tower with fire doors, add .10. 

If inside the building and inclosed with wood partitions 
and self-closing doors, add .05. 

Elevators 

If open or cased in wood and not located in brick ves- 
tibule or tower with fire doors, add .21. If inside and 
with automatic hatches, add .10. 

Beef or hog-drops not cut off, add .05. 

For continuous openings through or in the floors, for 
cold air ducts or ventilators, add .10. 

Note — Separate openings from brine chambers to in- 
dividual coolers may be permitted without charge when the 
pipe loft is immediately above the cooler. 
Door Openings 

(Not cumulative, except to covered and enclosed frame 
loading platforms, runways, shipping or car-icing sheds 
or docks, for which a specific charge should be made, in 
addition to other door opening charge). 



INSURANCE AND FIRE PROTECTION 273 

For openings in division walls protected by approved 
single fire doors, add .27. 

For openings in division walls protected by double fire 
doors not standard, add .21. 

For openings in division walls protected by standard 
double fire doors, add .16. 
Fire Protection 

If outside of city water or city fire department pro- 
tection, add .53. 

If with city water but hydrants not within 300 feet or 
in less than 6 inch main, add .16. 

If without standard reservoir for pump, add .27. 

If without standard standpipe or fire hose equipment, 
add .11. 

If without stand fire buckets, or chemical fire extin- 
guishers and ax on each floor, add .11. 

If inside or outside hydrants not kept open, or if with- 
out constant water pressure on inside standpipe, where 
used (other than inside chilling or curing rooms), add .06. 
Basis Rates (Sole or Principal Occupancy) 

Pork and Beef warehouses $1.06 

Boiler and Engine House 1.33 

Tank House-Rendering 1.59 

Tin Can Factory or Tin Shop 1.59 

Fertilizer-manufacturing and Storage 2.12 

Smoke House 1.59 

Sausage Factory 1.59 

Oleo and Butterine manufactory 1.85 

Canning Factory '. 1.85 

Lard Refining and Oil Pressing '. . . 1.85 

Oil and Bone House and storage 1.85 

Laundry with drying room, fireproof 1.59 

' Hair and wool drying room, fireproof 2.12 

Glue Factory and storage 1.59 

Soap Factory and storage 1.85 

Machine Shop I 1.06 

Box Factory, no passing 1.59 

Ice Manufacturing and storage, if in separate 

building 1.33 

Brick shipping and car icing sheds 1.59 

Platforms and runways 1.59 

Frame platforms, runways, icing sheds and 

' shipping platforms 2.12 

Frame stock pens — in yards — drives, viaducts and 

yard buildings 2.12 

Brick stables and barns 1.06 

■ Dressing Rooms and lockers (separate buildings) 1.59 



274 INSURANCE AND FIRE PROTECTION 

Buildings having two or more classes of occupancy, 
shall take basis rate according to the greatest hazard, with 
additions as per schedule to each building or division. 
Bridge or Viaduct Connections 

For covered and enclosed frame or ironclad connec- 
tions, with approved double fire doors or vestibule, add .05. 

For covered and enclosed frame or ironclad connec- 
tions, without approved double fire doors or vestibule, add 
.10. 
Coopering or Box iVlaking 

By hand or power, sawing or nailing, add .10. 
Dressing Rooms and Lockers 

If inside or in addition not cut off and not fireproof, 
add .16. 



CHAPTER XXIII 
ESTIMATES AND COST 

Preliminary Estimates 

In order to furnish an owner with an estimate of the 
cost of contemplated improvements, it is necessary to make 
preliminary drawings of the building. These are needed 
to determine the amount of material which is required in 
the construction. 

A fairly accurate estimate can be made by figuring 
the amount of concrete, brick, lumber, and other items 
which enter into the construction, at the prevailing market 
prices. 

The character of the building and the conditions under 
which the work must be performed, will have their influence 
on the cost, and to make even an approximate estimate re- 
quires both experience and careful consideration of the 
work in hand. Estimating is not an exact science like math- 
ematics. Contractors who make it their business to know 
what buildings are worth, will frequently vary as much as 
50% in the estimates on the same building. It should also 
be considered that the cost of labor and material changes 
from year to year and varies greatly in different localities. 

Approximate Estimating Prices 

The author is using the following) figures for estimating 
cost of buildings in the Middle Western States : 

Excavation 50 per cubic yard. 

Concrete Floor 6.00 per cubic yard. 

Concrete Foundation-walls with 

forms 8.00 per cubic yard. 

Reinforced Concrete-1-2-4 mixture . . 8.00 per cubic yard. 

Cellar Floor — 6-inch thick 15 per square foot. 

Reinforcing Steel 40.00 per ton 

Placing Steel 5.00 to 10.00 per ton 

Forming Floors 10 per square foot. 



nd ESTIMATES AND COST 

APPROXIMATE ESTIMATING PRICES CONTINUED. 

Forming Columns 50 per lineal foot. 

Forming Beams 8l Girders 40 per lineal foot. 

Brick-work 15.00 per 1000 brick. 

Pressed Brick 30. 00 per 1000 brick. 

Structural Steel — erected 55.00 per ton 

Lumber 40.00 per 1000 B/M ft. 

Flooring 70.00 per 1000 B/M ft. 

Roofing 5.00 per 100 square ft. 

Asphalt Paving 2.00 per square yard. 

Brick Paving — on edge on cinder 

fill 1.35 per square yard. 

Brick Paving — flat on cinder fill. . . 1.00 per square yard. 
Brick Paving — over concrete floor 

paving only 80 per square yard. 

Wood Paving — over 6-incli Cinder 

Concrete 1.65 per square yard. 

Windows — complete per sq. feet. . .50 per square foot. 

Fireproof Windows per sq. feet... .80 per square foot. 

Doors — per sq. feet 50 per square foot. 

Steel Fire Doors 1.00 per square foot. 

Sash with Glass 20 per square foot. 

Corkboard Insulation — per B/M 

foot — erected 07 y^ per foot. 

Plastering — two coats Port. Cement .35 per square yard. 

Painting — one coat 10 per square yard. 

Painting — two coats .18 per square yard. 

Painting — three coats 25 per square yard. 

Plumbing — Water closets in place 

complete 70.00 

Plumbing — Lavatories in place 

complete 50.00 

Plumbing — Urinals in place — 

complete 55.00 

Steel Stairs— 3 feet to 3 feet 6-inch 

wide 8.00 per lineal ft. rise. 

Stair — Railing — li/^-inch pipe ... .60 per lineal ft. rise. 
Newel Posts — Plain Cast Iron or 

Steel 5.00 each. 

Installation of Equipment 

The equipment must be listed and estimated by taking 
each item separately. This requires an intimate knowledge 
of the value of packing house machinery and the labor cost 
of installing same. The cost of installation will depend 
largely upon whether this is done by contract or by the 
owner's employees. 

The author has found that a considerable saving in the 
construction of new plants is made where the installation 
of tracking, piping, and packing house machinery is done 
with skilled workmen, working under the direction of a 



ESTIMATES AND COST 277 

competent packing house superintendent. Materials and 
necessary tools should then be purchased by the owner. 
This method of handling the work will greatly reduce the 
cost of any changes made in the arrangement, which is 
always expensive when the work is done under contract. 
The tools and machinery which are used in the erection 
can afterwards be installed in the machine shop. 

Cost of Packing Plants 

The cost of a complete packing plant of fireproof con- 
struction will vary between 16 and 20 cents per cubic foot 
of building. This can roughly be proportioned as follows: 
60% for building, and 40% for equipment. 

Mill constructed plants will cost from 13 to 16 cents 

per cubic feet, complete with all necessary equipment. 

Packing Plant — Chicago. Built in 1900 of Mill Construction. 
Size 1,700,000 cu. ft. Cost 12i^c per cubic ft., complete with, 
machinery. 

Beef plant — Chicago. Built in 1913, of Mill Construction. 
Size 650,000 cubic ft. Cost l^^s cents per cubic ft., com- 
plete with machinery. 

Packing Plant — Burlington, Iowa. Built in 1908, of Mill 
Construction. 

Size, 850,000 cubic ft. Cost 13.6c per cubic ft. complete with 
machinery. 

Packing Plant — Sioux Falls, S. D. Built in 1911, of Fireproof 
and Mill Construction. Size 3,000,000 cu. ft. Cost 16^ cents 
per cubic ft., complete with machinery. 

Tank House — Ottumwa, Iowa. Built in 1909, Fireproof Con- 
struction. 

Size, 160,000 cubic feet, cost 17i/4c per cubic ft. complete 
with equipment. 

Cost of Cold Storage Buildings 

The cost of fireproof cold storage buildings with ma- 
chinery, insulation, piping, electric wiring, elevators, etc., 
all complete and readj'- for operation, can be estimated at 
from 15 to 20 cents per cubic foot. The actual cost will 
depend largely upon the location and the amount of freezer 
storage in the building. Low temperature rooms require 
heavier insulation and more refrigerating capacity and the 
estimated cost must be figured accordingly. 

Cold storage buildings of mill construction require the 
same amount of insulation and equipment as fireproof 
buildings. The difference in cost will, therefore, only be in 



278 ESTIMATES AND COST 

the construction of the buildmg which can be placed at 
from 10 to 15 per cent less than it will cost to build of 
reinforced concrete. Where the building is designed for 
heavy floor loads and with the columns far apart, the con- 
crete construction will often be the cheaper. 
Comparative Cost of Concrete and Mill Construction 

This is a topic which is frequently discussed and about 
which there seems to be some difference of opinion. The 
location of the building and the interior arrangement will 
have a great deal to do with the cost, in one way or the 
other, and in order to obtain an accurate comparison it 
would be necessary to design the building in both types of 
construction and secure estimates from builders on the 
cost of each. 

By "Mill Construction" is meant a type of construction 
in which the walls are of masonry and the size of every 
post is not less than 10x10 inches, beams and girders not 
less than 6x12 inches and all floors at least three and one- 
half inches thick and the roof two and five-eighths inches 
thick. 

The following comparison of cost may be of general 
interest. The figures were obtained from the office of a 
Chicago architect from the completed plans of factory 
buildings to be erected in that city. 

One building was 100x100 feet, five stories high, with 
basement, and was designed for a live load of 280 pounds 
per square foot on all fioors. The walls were of brick. The 
panels in the mill design were 14x16 feet and the concrete 
design was of the most economical type of flat slab concrete 
skeleton construction. 

The actual bid for the mill construction building was 
$65,100.00 and for the concrete building $72,200.00, making 
a difference of $7,100.00 more for the concrete, an increase 
of about 11% above the mill. 

Another building was seven stories high with basement, 
68x75 feet, and was designed for a live load of 150 pounds 
per square foot. The panels in both designs were 16x18 
feet. The mill construction cost $65,400.00 and the con- 



ESTIMATES AND COST 279 

Crete $75,300.00, making a difference of $9,900.00 more 
for the concrete, or an increase of about 15%. 

These prices would be typical in Chicago or any other 
city where high-priced union labor is used and building ma- 
terials are expensive. 

In localities where lower priced labor can be had, there 
would be less difference in the cost between the two types 
of construction, principally because the concrete and the 
reinforcing steel could be handled by common labor. 

Where lumber is available at very low prices the dif- 
ference may be still further in favor of mill construction. 
Much depends upon the size of the floor panels and the 
load to be carried. In a building with 16x16 foot panels the 
cost of the two types of construction would be about the 
same, when the load equals 350 pounds per square foot. 
When the column spacing is over 16 feet, the increase in 
cost, due to the large size timbers required makes mill con- 
struction very expensive and steel or concrete can, there- 
fore, be employed to better advantage. 



CHAPTER XXIV 
MISCI^LLANEOUS INFORMATION 

Floor Loads 

Floor loads in packing plants vary according to the oc- 
cupancy of the building and each floor must be designed 
for the maximum load which it is supposed to carry. 

Some allowance should be made for a possible change 
in the occupancy in small plants, where the future growth 
of the business often requires that changes be made in 
the old arrangement, which may necessitate the strength- 
ening of a weak floor, due to a heavier load being placed 
on the floor than it was originally designed to support. It was 
at one time the policy of one of the largest packing firms in 
Chicago, to design all the floors in their manufacturing 
and storage buildings for a live load of 250 pounds per 
square foot. This enabled them to use any floor in these 
buildings for heavy storage purposes and undoubtedly 
saved a lot of money during the period of rapid growth and 
development of their various plants. 

When the occupancy of a building is of a fixed char- 
acter and the possibility of converting it into a different use 
is remote, there is no advantage in designing the floors 
heavier than is required. This will include such buildings 
as tank houses, smoke houses, killing floors and permanent 
office buildings. 

In this connection it is well to remember that all struc- 
tural material is used with a large margin of safety and 
when an owner demands that his building should be de- 
signed good and strong, he may not always take into con- 
sideration that a floor which is designed for 200 pounds 
will often carry four to six times as much before it will fail. 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 281 

Where buildings are constructed under the supervision 
of City Building Departments, their requirements regard- 
ing the construction and loads must be followed. However, 
these requirements apply more to buildings which are sub- 
ject to general classification than to packing houses. 

In Chicago, the minimum load for all classes of mer- 
cantile and storage buildings is 100 pounds per square foot 
of floor surface. When heavier loads are to be carried the 
floors must be designed accordingly and the Building De- 
partment requires that placards be posted in each room 
stating the load for which each particular floor or panel is 
designed. 

Packing house floors have, in the past, very frequently 
been constructed with small regard for the actual require- 
ments which they had to take care of, and there are few 
of the old buildings in which the floors have remained as 
they were originally built. Only too often do we flnd that 
the construction has sagged and settled so that the slope 
to gutters and floor-drains is insufficient to properly drain 
the floors. These conditions are often caused by careless- 
ness or lack of forethought on the part of the designer, who 
neglects to take care of special requirements. 

There are, for example, in manufacturing buildings, 
many floor panels which carry the load of tanks or machin- 
ery. This load is of a more permanent nature than the load 
on the other panels and will in time cause the floor to sag, 
unless the construction and foundations have been designed 
to take care of such conditions. The same consideration 
should X>e given to any part of a floor which supports vibrat- 
ing machinery, such as hog scrapers, fertilizer dryers or 
stick rolls. 

In a well designed plant, the nature of the loading 
should be carefully considered and the size of the founda- 
tion made in accordance therewith. This is particularly im- 
portant when the plant is located on alluvial soil, which is 
frequently the case with packing plants. 

To accurately determine the load on storage floors, it 
is necessary to know the weight of the product and the 



282 MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 

manner in which the goods are handled and stored. The 
amount of packing house products which may be piled on 
the floor is only limited by the height of the ceiling, and 
when the available storage space is scarce it is surprising 
how much the packer can pile on the floor, regardless of 
what it is supposed to carry. 

The conditions and loads which may be found on any 
floor in all buildings are as follows: 

1st — Weight of commodities in storage. 

2nd — Average load from manufacturing process. 

3rd — Weight of special equipment and machinery. 

4th — Vibration caused by machinery or moving loads, 
such as live stock or meats on overhead rails and conveyors. 

5th — Weight of floor construction. 

The failures of packing house floors which have come 
to the author's attention, have generally been caused by 
excessive loading of floors in rooms with high ceilings. 
There is always the temptation to overload, under crowded 
conditions, and a careful designer will add to the strength 
of such floors as an added guarantee of safety. 
Table of Minimum Live Load for Packing House Floor 

The following table gives the minimum live loads per 
square foot of floor area for which it is safe to design the 
floors of the various packing house buildings, with story- 
heights of eleven feet or under. To these loads must be 
added the weight of the floor construction and any heavy 
machinery or equipment. 

MINIMUM LIVE LOAD FOR PACKING HOUSE FLOORS. 

Beef Cooler Floors 100 lbs. per sq, foot. 

Beef Cooler Ceilings 300 lbs. per lineal foot rail (Beef in sides) 

Beef Cooler Ceilings 175 lbs. per lineal foot rail (Beef in quarters) 

Bone Cooking Rooms 150 lbs. per sq. foot. 

Bone Storage 150 lbs. per sq. foot. 

Canning Rooms 150 lbs. per sq. foot. 

Casing Storage 200 lbs. per sq. foot. 

Cattle Pens 100 lbs. per sq. foot. 

Curing Coolers 150 lbs. per sq. foot. (S. P. Meat) 

Curing Coolers 300 to 400 lbs. per sq. foot. (D. S. Meat) 

Curing Coolers 275 lbs. per sq foot. (Beef in tierces) 

Cutting Rooms 125 lbs. per sq. foot. 

Cooper Shop 150 lbs. per sq. foot. 

Dressing Room 100 lbs. per sq. foot. 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 283 

MINIMUM LIVE LOAD FOE PACKING HOUSE FLOORS CONTINUED. 

Fat Chilling 200 lbs. per sq. foot. 

Fertilizer Storage 300 lbs. per sq. foot. 

Fertilizer Storage 200 lbs. per sq. foot. (Drying and cooling). 

Freezer Storage. 

Beef piled loose on floor. . . . 200 lbs. per sq. foot. 

Sheep piled loose on floor. .. . 175 lbs. per sq. foot. 

Offal Freezer 300 lbs. per sq. foot. 

Sharp freezer with racks .... 200 lbs. per sq. foot. 

Storage freezer 300 lbs. per sq. foot. 

Hair Drying and Storage 200 lbs. per sq. foot. 

Hide Storage 250 lbs. per sq. foot. 

Hide Pickling Vats 300 lbs. per sq. foot. 

Hog Coolers — floor 100 lbs. per sq. foot. 

Hog Coolers — ceiling 200 lbs. per lin. foot of rail. 

Hog Pens 100 lbs. per sq. foot. 

Killing Floors 125 lbs. per sq. foot. 

Lard Refinery 150 lbs. per sq. foot. 

Lard Storage Coolers 200 lbs. per sq. foot. 

Offal Floors 125 lbs. per sq. foot. 

Offices 100 lbs. per sq. foot. 

Oleo Seeding and Clarifying 150 lbs. per sq. foot. 

Oleo Storage Cooler 200 lbs. per sq. foot. 

Smoke House 100 lbs. per sq. foot. 

Smoked Meat Packing 150 lbs. per sq. foot. 

Sausage Factory 150 lbs. per sq. foot. 

Summer Sausage Hanging Floor. 

Floor 100 lbs. per sq. foot. 

Shipping Rooms 150 lbs. per sq. foot. 

Sheep Cooler — floor 100 lbs. per sq. foot. 

Sheep Cooler — ceiling 175 lbs. per lin. foot of rail. 

Sheep Pens 100 lbs. per sq. foot. 

Stearine Storage 200 lbs. per sq. foot. 

Stables 100 lbs. per sq. foot. 

Tank Houses 100 lbs. per sq. foot. 

Tin Storage 150 lbs. per sq. foot. 

Tallow and Grease Storage 200 lbs. per sq. foot. 

Wool Washing 175 lbs. per sq. foot. 

Wool Drying 100 lbs. per sq. foot. 

Wool Storage (baled) 150 lbs. per sq. foot. 

Cold Storage and Freezing Temperatures for Various 
Products, 

The following list of products held in cold storage and 
the proper freezing temperatures for storing, is taken from 
Madison Cooper's book,* "Practical Cold Storage." Mr. 
Cooper states that the temperatures, as given, should be 
considered as a guide only and that they are subject to the 
changes required to meet varying conditions under which 
the goods are stored. 

•Practical Cold Storage. Published by Nickerson & Collins Co., 
Chicago. 



284 MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 

COLD STOKAGE AND FREEZING TEMPERATURES FOR VARIOUS PRODUCTS. 

Products Degree 

i-roaucis. p^^^^. 

Apple Butter 42 

Apples 30 

Asparagus 33 

Bananas , 58 

Beans (dried) 45 

Beer (bottled) 45 

Berries, fresh (few days only) 40 

Buckwheat Flour 42 

Bulbs 34 

Butter 14 

Butterine 20 

Cabbage 31 

Canned Fruits . • • • • 40 

Canned Meats 40 

Cantaloupes (short carry) . 40 

Cantaloupes (one to two months) 33 

Carrots 33 

Caviar 36 

Celery 32 

Cheese 35 

Chestnuts 34 

Chocolate Dipping Room 65 

Cider 32 

Cigars 42 

Corn (dried) 45 

Corn Meal 42 

Cranberries 33 

Cream (short carry) 33 

Cucumbers 38 

Currants (few days only) 32 

Cut Roses 36 

Dates 55 

Dried Beef 40 

Dried Fish 40 

Dried Fruits 40 

Eggs 30 

Ferns 28 

Field Grown Roses 32 

Figs 55 

Fish (fresh water, after frozen) 18 

Fish, not frozen (short carry) 28 

Fish, salt-water (after frozen) 15 

Fish (to freeze) 5 

Frog Legs (after frozen) 18 

Fruit Trees . . . .■ 30 

Fur and Fabric Room 28 

Furs (undressed) 35 

Game (after frozen) 10 

Game (short carry) 28 

Game (to freeze) 

Ginger Ale 36 

Grapes 36 

Hams (not brined) 20 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 285 

COLD STOBAGTE AND FREEZING TEMPERATURES FOR VARIOUS PRODUCTS- 
CONTINUED. 

Hogs 30 

Hops 32 

Huckleberries (frozen, long carry) 20 

Ice Cream (few days only) 15 

Ice Storage Room (refrigerated) 28 

Japanese Fern Balls 31 

Lard 40 

Lemons (long carry) 38 

Lemons (short carry) 50 

Lily of the Valley Pips 25 

Livers 20 

Maple Sugar 45 

Maple Syrup 45 

Meat, fresh (10 to 30 days) 30 

Meat, fresh (few days only) 35 

Meat, salt (after curing) 43 

Mild Cured Pickled Salmon 33 

Milk (short carry) 35 

Nursery Stock 30 

Nuts in Shell 40 

Oatmeal 42 

Oils 45 

Oleomargarine 20 

Onions 32 

Oranges (long carry) 34 

Oranges (short carry) 50 

Oxtails 30 

Oysters (iced in tubs) 35 

Oysters, in shell 43 

Palm Seeds 38 

Parsnips 32 

Peach Butter 42 

Peaches (short carry) 50 

Pears 33 

Peas (dried) 45 

Plums (one to two months) 32 

Potatoes X 34 

Poultry (after frozen) 10 

Poultry, dressed (iced) 30 

Poultry (short carry) 28 

Poultry (to freeze) 

Raisins 55 

Ribs (not brined) 20 

Salt Meat curing room 1 33 

Sardines (canned) 40 

Sauerkraut 38 

Sausage Casings 20 

Scallops (after frozen) 16 

Shoulders (not brined) 20 

Strained Honey 45 

Sugar 45 

Syrup 45 

Tenderloin, etc 33 

Tobacco 42 



286 MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 

COLD STORAGTE AJSTD FREEZING TEMPERATURES FOR VARIOUS PRODUCTS- 
CONTINUED. 

Tomatoes (ripe) 42 

Veal 30 

Watermelon (short carry) 40 

Wheat Flour 42 

Wines 50 

Cold Storage Rates 

The following rates on commodities, held in storage, 
was prepared by the manager of a commercial cold storage 
plant in Chicago. They are fair averages of what is charged, 
where there is competitive cold storage facilities: 

Commodity. 

Apples, in bbls 40c to 50c per season to May 1. 

Apples, in boxes 15c per season to May 1. 

Ale and Beer 25c per bbl. per month. 

Butter, in tubs 7c to 10c per tub per month. 

Cheese, in boxes 1/lOc per lb. per month. 

Celery, in crates 20c per crate per month. 

Cabbage, in crates 20c per crate per month. 

Eggs, in cases (per month) 10c first month, 5c thereafter. 

Eggs, in cases. . (per season) 30c to 40c to Jan. 1st. 

Fruits, Dried %c per lb. per month. 

Berries, in baskets i/^c per basket per month. 

Grape Fruit, in cases 10c per case per month. 

Cranberries, in cases 10c per case per month. 

Lemons, in cases 10c per case per month. 

Oranges, in cases 10c per case per month. 

Pears, in boxes 5c per box per month. 

Game, brace %c per lb. per month. 

Lard, in tierces 35c to 50c per tierce per month. 

Lard, in pails 1/lOc per lb. per month. 

Meats, fresh or frozen Beef . . %c to 1/lOc per lb. per month. 

Meats, fresh or frozen Mutton %c to 1/lOc per lb. per month. 

Meats, fresh or frozen Pork. . ^c to 1/lOc per lb. per month. 

Meats, fresh or frozen Livers %c per. lb per month. 

Meats, Fresh or frozen Spare Ribs . %c per lb per month. 

Meats, Canned %c per lb. per month. 

Meats, Sweet Pickled 1/lOc per lb. per month. 

Meats, Dry Salt (loose) 1/lOc per lb. per month. 

Meats, Cured, (in tierces) .. .35c to 50c per tierce per month. 

Meats, Veal Carcasses with hide on %c per lb. per month. 

Nuts, in sacks 1/lOc per lb. per month. 

Onions, in boxes 15c per box per month. 

Poultry, in boxes, fresh or frozen, %c per lb. per month. 

Sauerkraut, in bbls 50c per bbl. per month. 



CHAPTER XXV 
GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS 

The following regulations pertaining to construction 
and sanitation apply to all packing plants, which are oper- 
ated under Government inspection. They are extracts 
from "Regulations governing the meat inspection of the 
United States Department of Agriculture," issued July 30, 
1914, and are of special interest to designers of packing 
plants. 

For the purposes of these regulations the following 
words, phrases, names, and terms shall be construed 
respectively to mean: 

Regulation 1 

Paragraph 18. Carcass — All parts, including viscera, of 
a slaughtered animal that are capable of being used as 
human food. 

Paragraph 19. Primal Parts — The usual sections, cuts, 
or parts of the dressed carcass commonly known to the 
trade, such as sides, quarters, shoulders, hams, backs, bel- 
lies, beef tongues, and beef livers, before they have been 
cut, shredded, or otherwise subdivided preliminary to use 
in the manufacture of meat food products. 

Paragraph SO. Meat Product — Any edible part of the 
carcass of any cattle, sheep, swine, or goat, which is not 
manufactured, cured, smoked, processed, or otherwise 
treated. 

Paragraph 21. 'Meat Food Product — Any article of food 
or any article which enters into the composition of food 
for human consumption, which is derived or prepared, in 
whole or in part, from any portion of the carcass of any cat- 
tle, sheep, swine or goat, if such portion is all or a consider- 



288 GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS 

able and definite portion of the article, except such articles 
as organo-therapeutic substances, meat juice, meat ex- 
tract, and the like, which are only for medicinal purposes 
and are advertised only to the medical profession. 

Paragraph "22. Meat and Products — Carcasses, parts of 
carcasses, meat, products, food products, meat products, 
and meat food products of, or derived from, cattle, sheep, 
swine, and goats, which are capable of being used as food 
by man. 

Regulation 7 

Section 1 — Office room, including light and heat, shall 
be provided by oflicial establishments, rent free, for the 
exclusive use, for official purposes, of the inspector and 
other bureau employees assigned thereto. The room or 
rooms set apart for this purpose shall meet with the ap- 
proval of the inspector in charge and shall be conveniently 
located, properly ventilated, and provided with lockers 
suitable for the protection and storage of bureau supplies 
and with facilities suitable for the dressing of bureau em- 
ployees. 

Section 5— When required by the chief of bureau or the 
inspector in charge, the following facilities and conditions, 
and such others as may be essential to eflficient conduct of 
inspection, shall be provided by each official establishment: 

(a) Satisfactory pens, equipment, and assistants for 
conducting ante-mortem inspection and for separating, 
marking, and holding apart from passed animals those 
marked "U. S. suspect" and those marked "U. S. con- 
demned." 

(b) Sufficient natural light, and abundant artificial 
light at times of the day when natural light may not be ade- 
quate, at places for inspection. Such places shall be kept 
sufficiently free of steam and vapors for inspection to be 
properly made. 

(c) Racks, receptacles, or other suitable devices for 
retaining such parts as the head, tongue, tail, thymus gland, 
and viscera, and all parts and blood to be used in the prepa- 
ration of meat food products or medical products, until 



GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS 289 

after the post-mortem examination is completed, in order 
that they may be identified in case of condemnation of the 
carcass; equipment, trucks, and receptacles for the han- 
dling of viscera of slaughtered animals so as to prevent 
contact with the floor; trucks, racks, marked receptacles, 
tables, or other necessary equipment for the separate and 
sanitary handling of carcasses or parts passed for steriliza- 
tion. 

(d) Tables, benches, and other equipment on which 
inspection is performed of such design, material and con- 
struction as to enable bureau employees to conduct their 
inspection in a ready, efficient, and cleanly manner. 

(e) Sanitary water-tight metal trucks or receptacles 
for holding and handling diseased carcasses and parts ; such 
trucks or receptacles to be marked in a conspicuous man- 
ner with the phrase "U. S. condemned," in letters not less 
than 2 inches high, and, when required by the inspector 
in charge, to be equipped with facilities for locking or seal- 
ing. 

(/) Adequate arrangements, including disinfectants, 
for cleansing and disinfecting hands, for sterilizing all im- 
plements used in dressing diseased carcasses, and for dis- 
infecting hides, floors, and such other articles and places as 
many be contaminated by diseased carcasses or otherwise. 

ig) In establishments in which slaughtering is done, 
rooms, compartments, or specially prepared open places, to 
be known as "flnal inspection places," at which the flnal 
inspection of retained carcasses shall be conducted. Final 
inspection places shall be sufficient in size and their rail 
arrangement and other equipment shall be adequate to 
prevent carcasses and parts passed fpr food or steriliza- 
tion from being contaminated by contact with condemned 
carcasses or parts. They shall be equipped with hot water, 
stationary washstands, and sanitary tables and other ap- 
paratus essential to a ready, efficient, and sanitary conduct 
of the inspection. The floors shall be of sanitary construc- 
tion and shall have proper sewer connections, and when the 
final inspection place is part of a larger floor it shall be sep- 
arated by a curb and railing. 



290 GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS 

(h) In each establishment at which any condemned 
article is held until a day subsequent to its condemnation, 
a suitably located room or compartment in which the same 
shall be placed. This room or compartment shall be secure, 
rat-proof, and susceptible of being kept clean, including a 
sanitary disposition of the floor liquids. It shall be equipped 
for secure locking, and shall be held under a lock furnished 
by the department, the key of which shall not leave the cus- 
tody of a bureau employee. The door or doors of such 
room or compartment shall be conspicuously marked with 
the phrase "U. S. condemned" in letters not less than 2 
inches high. 

(i) Rooms, compartments and receptacles in such 
number and in such locations as the needs of the inspection 
in the establishment may require, in which carcasses and 
products may be held for further inspection. These shall 
be equipped for secure locking and shall be held under locks 
furnished by the department, the keys of which shall not 
leave the custody of bureau employees. Every such room, 
compartment or receptacle shall be conspicuously marked 
with the phrase "U. S. retained" in letters not less than 
2 inches high. 

(/) Adequate facilities, including denaturing mate- 
rials, for the proper disposal of condemned articles in 
accordance with these regulations. Tanks which, under 
these regulations, must be sealed shall be properly equipped 
for sealing as may be specified by the chief of bureau. 

(k) Docks and receiving rooms, to be designated by 
the establishment, with the approval of the inspector in 
charge, for the receipt and inspection of all meat and pro- 
ducts as provided in section 4 of regulation 18. 

(I) Suitable lockers in which brands bearing the in- 
spection legend shall be kept when not in use. All such 
lockers shall be equipped for locking with locks to be sup- 
plied by the department, the keys of which shall not leave 
the custody of bureau employees. 
Regulation 8 

Section 1 — ^Prior to the inauguration of inspection, an 



GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS 291 

examination of the establishment and premises shall be 
made by a bureau employee and the requirements for sani- 
tation and the necessary facilities for inspection specified. 
Section 2 — Triplicate copies of plans, properly drawn 
to scale, and of specifications, including plumbing and 
drainage, for remodeling plants of official establishments 
and for new structures, shall be submitted to the chief of 
bureau in advance of construction. 

Section 3. Paragraph 1 — Official establishments, es- 
tablishments at which market inspection is conducted, and 
premises on or in which any meat or product is prepared or 
handled by it for persons to whom certificates of exemp- 
tion have been issued shall be maintained in sanitary con- 
dition, and to this end the requirements of paragraphs 2 
to 8, inclusive, of this section shall be complied with. 

Paragraph 2 — There shall be abundant light, both nat- 
ural and artificial, and sufficient ventilation for all rooms 
and compartments, to insure sanitary condition. 

Paragraph 3 — There shall be an efficient drainage and 
plumbing system for the establishment and premises, and 
all drains and gutters shall be properly installed with ap- 
proved traps and vents. 

Paragraph 4- — The water supply shall be ample, clean 
and potable, with adequate facilities for its distribution in 
the plant. Every establishment shall make known, and 
whenever required shall afford opportunity for inspection 
of, the source of its water supply and the location and char- 
acter of its reservoir and storage tanks. 

Paragraph 5 — The fioors, walls, ceilings, partitions, 
posts, doors and other parts of all structures shall be of 
such materials, construction and finish as will make them 
susceptible of being readily and thoroughly cleaned. The 
floors shall be kept watertight. The rooms and compart- 
ments used for edible products shall be separate and distinct 
from those for inedible products. 

Paragraph 6 — The rooms and compartments in which 
any meat or product is prepared or handled shall be free 



292 GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS 

from odors from dressing and toilet rooms, catch basins, 
hide cellars, casing rooms, inedible tank and fertilizer 
rooms, and stables. 

Paragraph 7- — Every practicable precaution shall be 
taken to keep establishments free of flies, rats, mice and 
other vermin. The use of rat poisons is prohibited in 
rooms or compartments w^here any unpacked meat or 
product is stored or handled; but their use is not forbidden 
in hide cellars, inedible compartments, outbuildings, or 
similar places, or in storehouses containing canned or 
tierced products. So-called rat viruses shall not be used in 
any part of an establishment or the premises thereof. 

Section 4 — Adequate sanitary facilities and accommo- 
dations shall be furnished by every official establishment. 
Of these the following are specified: 

(a) Dressing rooms, toilet rooms and urinals, suffi- 
cient in number, ample in size, conveniently located, prop- 
erly ventilated, and meeting all requirements as to sanitary 
construction and equipment. These shall be separate from 
the rooms and compartments in w^hich meat and products 
are prepared, stored or handled. Where both sexes are 
employed, separate facilities shall be provided. 

{])) Modern lavatory accommodations, including run- 
ning hot and cold water, soap, towels, etc. These shall be 
placed in or near the toilet and urinal rooms and also at 
such places as may be essential to assure cleanliness of all 
persons handling any meat or product. 

(c) Properly located facilities for disinfecting and 
cleansing utensils and hands of all persons handling any 
meat or product. 

(d) Cuspidors of such shape as not readily to be 
upset and of such material as to be readily disinfected. 
They shall be sufficient in number and accessibly placed in 
all rooms and places designated by the inspector in charge, 
and all persons who expectorate shall be required to use 
them. 

Section 5 — Equipment and utensils used for preparing, 
processing and otherwise handling any meat or product 



GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS 293 

shall be of such materials and construction as will make 
them susceptible of being readily and thoroughly cleaned 
and such as will insure strict cleanliness in the preparation 
and handling of all meats and products. Trucks and recep- 
tacles used for inedible products shall bear some con- 
spicuous and distinctive mark and shall not be used for 
handling edible products. 

Section 6 — Rooms, compartments, places, equipment, 
and utensils used for preparing, storing, or otherwise hand- 
ling any meat or products, and all other parts of the estab- 
lishment, shall be kept clean and sanitary. 

Section 7. Paragraph 1 — Operations and procedures 
involving the preparation, storing or handling of any meat 
or product shall be strictly in accord with cleanly and sani- 
tary methods. 

Paragraph 2 — Rooms and compartments in which in- 
spections are made and those in which animals are slaugh- 
tered or any meat or product is processed or prepared shall 
be kept sufficiently free of steam and vapors to enable the 
bureau employees to make inspections and to insure 
cleanly operations. The walls and ceilings of rooms and 
compartments under refrigeration shall be kept reason- 
ably free from moisture. 

Paragraph 3 — -Butchers and others who dress or handle 
diseased carcasses or parts shall, before handling or dress- 
ing other carcasses or parts, cleanse their hands of grease, 
immerse them in a prescribed disinfectant, and rinse them 
in clean water. Implements used in dressing diseased car- 
casses shall be thoroughly cleansed in boiling water or in 
a prescribed disinfectant followed by rinsing in clean 
water. The employees of the establishment who handle 
any meat or product shall keep their hands clean, and in 
all cases after visiting the toilet rooms or urinals shall wash 
their hands before handling any meat or product or imple- 
ments used in the preparation of the same. 

Paragraph If — Aprons and frocks and other outer cloth- 
ing worn by persons who handle any meat or product shall 



294 GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS 

be of material that is readily cleansed and only clean gar- 
ments shall be worn. Knife scabbards shall be kept clean. 

Paragraph 5 — Such practices as spitting on whetstones, 
placing skewers or knives in the mouth, inflating lungs or 
casings, or testing with air from the mouth such receptacles 
as tierces, kegs, casks and the like, containing or intended 
as containers of any meat or product, are prohibited. Only 
mechanical means may be used for testing. 
Regulation 13 

Section 1 — All tanks and equipment used for render- 
ing or preparing inedible products shall be in rooms or 
compartments separate from those used for rendering or 
preparing edible products. There shall be no connection, 
by means of pipes or otherwise, between tanks, rooms or 
compartments containing inedible products and those con- 
taining edible products. 

Section 2 — Every oflftcial establishment shall file with 
the department blue prints or other accurate diagrams 
showing all underground pipe lines and other equipment 
used to convey edible products and those used to convey 
Inedible products, with a description giving the exact loca- 
tion, terminals and dimensions of such pipes and other 
equipment and of all gates, valves, or other controlling 
apparatus, and designating the lines used for conveying 
edible products and those used for conveying inedible prod- 
ucts, and shall also file a copy thereof with the inspector in 
charge. Like prints or diagrams of alterations in existing 
tank rooms or tanks and of new tank houses or tanks of 
official establishments shall be furnished to the department 
and approved by the chief of bureau before the same are 
constructed. If no such underground pipe line or equip- 
ment is used for any of the purposes mentioned in this 
section, a written statement certifying to that fact and 
duly signed by the proprietor or operator of the establish- 
ment shall be filed with the department. 

Section 3. Paragraph 1 — In conveying to the inedible- 
product tank carcasses of animals which have been con- 



GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS 295 

demned on ante-mortem inspection, they shall not be taken 
through rooms or compartments in which any meat prod- 
uct is prepared, handled or stored. 

Paragraph 2 — Under no circumstances shall the car- 
cass of any animal which has died otherwise than by 
slaughter be brought into any room or compartment in 
which any meat or product is prepared, handled or stored. 

Paragraph 3 — No dead animal shall, under any circum- 
stances, be brought from outside the premises of an official 
establishment into any room or compartment thereof where 
any meat or product is prepared; nor, unless permission 
therefor in advance shall be obtained from the Secretary 
of Agriculture, shall any dead animal be brought into rooms 
or compartments where inedible products are prepared. 
"Dead animal," within the meaning of this paragraph, shall 
be construed to include any animal which died without 
having been inspected under these regulations. 

Paragraph 4- — Inedible fats from outside the premises 
of an official establishment shall not be received except 
into the tank room provided for inedible products, and 
then only when their receipt into the tank room produces 
no insanitary condition on the premises. When so received, 
they shall not enter any room or compartment used for 
edible products. 



TOPICAL INDEX 



Page 

Absorption machines 204-208 

operation 204 

generator 206 

pump 206 

exchanger 206, 207 

weak liquor cooler 207 

effect of pressure in absorption 

machines 207, 208 

Air ducts, location of 38 

partitions for 63, 65, 66 

Air washing tower. . . 70, 71 

Airoblast firing for smoke houses. .83-85 
American Society for Testing Ma- 
terials — lumber specifications. 104 

Ammonia, characteristics of 201 

refrigerant action of 201 

Ammonia compressor 202-204 

Ammonia condensers 28 

water supply for 121 

Ammonia refrigerating machines. . . . 

200-208 

absorption machines 204-208 

compression machines 202-204 

Ammonia pumps, operating power. . 208 

Aprons 293 

Area of buildings and fire insurance 

rates 259, 260, 266, 270 

Asbestos fibres in plastering 198 

Asphalt floors 237 

Attic, insulation of 135 

Automatic sprinklers 99 



Beams in outer walls, insulation of 

(Fig. 76) 132 

Beef and sheep killing plant 29-33 

first floor plan of (Fig. 9) 29 

Beef killing floor, construction of 

(Fig. 30) 48 

crosS' section of (Figs. 31, 32). 48 
Beef offal floor, arrangement of 

(Fig. 35) 52 

Bleeding rails, supports for 49 

Blood receivers 27 

Blowtank (Fig. 45) 80, 81 

Boiler and engine rooms, location.. 28 

Bone mill 36 

Brick floors and paving 244, 245 

Brick walls, cork board as insulating 

material for (Fig. lOD) 173 

painting of 255 

refrigerator door in (Fig. 130).. 222 
Bridge or viaduct construction, fire 

insurance and protection 268 

Brine tanks, insulation (Figs. 116, 

117) 189-192 

location of 189 

Building plans, filing of 294 



Page 
Bureau of Animal Industry require- 
ments, drainage 107 

fresh air IS 

natural light 15 

paints and painting 254, 255 

plumbing 107 

sanitation 107 

whitewashing 257 

C 

Canning factory, beef and sheep kill- 
ing plant 31 

Carcasses, diseased, handling of 293 

Catch basin, location 28 

operation of 112-114 

use and construction (Fig. 70) 
111-114 

Cattle and sheep killing floor 44 

arrangement of (Fig. 44).... 28, 29 

Caulked wood floors 237 

Ceiling coils, hangers for (Fig. 123) 

■, .,. 213 

Ceiling insulation 181-185 

on concrete ceiling (Fig. 110)... 184 

plastering on ceiling 184 

insulation nailed to ceiling joists 185 

Ceilings 268 

insulation of 133 

Ceilings, concrete, inserts in 250 

insulation on (Fig. 110) 184 

Cellar 31, 32 

in cooler building (Fig. 10).... 31 

Cellar floors, gutters in 249 

insulation of (Fig. 112) 186, 187 

Cellars, underground communication 
\ between 18 

Chicago Board of Fire Underwriters, 
recommendations on construc- 
tion of packing houses 266-274 

Chilling rooms 14, 15 

Coal dumps 28 

Cold storage, advantage of 115-118 

list of articles preserved by.... 117 

Cold storage buildings 115-126 

firepropf construction 121, 122 

mill construction 122, 123 

ordinary construction 123, 124 

reinforced concrete construction 

124-129 

insulation and its influence on 

construction 129-136 

coaling facilities in 121 

cost of 277, 278 

importance of railroad trackage 

for railway cars 120 

location and shipping facilities 

for 119, 120 

subsidies for, in Canada 118, 119 

Cold storage doors (see Doors) . .218-228 



298 



TOPICAL INDEX 



Page 

Cold storage rates (table) 286 

Cold storage windows (see Windows, 
cold storage) 

Cold water paints 256 

Columns, construction details. .. 181, 182 

diameter of 124 

insulation (Fig. 83) .■•.-•• ^'^'^ 

Column spacing, in cooler building 

for beef 18 

in cooler building for hogs.... 18 

in curing rooms 18 

Communication, between buildings.. 17 
separate for trucking of edible 

and inedible products 17, 18 

Comparative costs, of concrete and 

mill construction 278, 279 

Compound lard plant 32 

Compressed pure cork board. ... 167, 168 
Compression machines, ammonia 

compressors 202-204 

Compressors, capacity of 203, 204 

Concrete, floor finish 242, 243 

porosity of 240 

hardness of 243 

Concrete construction and mill con- 
struction, comparative costs. . 

278, 279 

Concrete finish on cork board (Fig. 

113) 187 

Concrete floors, waterproofing. . .241, 242 

Conveyors for carcasses 44 

Coolers, beef building (Fig. 5) 24 

beef building, capacity per foot 

of rail space of 24 

hanging capacity of 24 

in shipping room 30 

leaf lard 24 

pork • • 24 

Cooler building, communication with 

slaughter house 23 

division for hogs and for cattle 

in 23 

Coopering and box making, effect on 

insurance rates 274 

Cork and tile as insulation (Fig. 104) 178 
Cork and wood studding as insulat- 
ing material (Figs. 103, 107).. 

176-180 

Cork as insulating material 165-168 

granulated cork 165, 166 

unscreened granulated cork 166 

screened granulated cork 166 

regranulated cork 166, 167 

impregnated cork board 167 

Cork board, compressed, pure 167 

impregnated 167 

in cement mortar (Fig. 101).... 174 
with concrete finish (Fig. 113).. 187 
Cork covering for pipes (Fig. 119) 
for underground pipes (Fig. 

120) 194, 195 

Costs, cold storage buildings. .. .277, 278 
comparison of concrete and mill 

construction 278-279 

packing plants 277 

Creosote as wood preservative 105 

Curing, sweet pickled meats 38 

Curing rooms, location 15 

Curing vats, per section 19 

Curtain system of refrigeration. .66, 67 

Cuspidors 292 

Cutting room. Fig. 39 56 



D 

Page 
Damp rot fungi, danger from to 

lumber 100 

prevention by ventilation of . . . . 100 
Deficiency charges by fire insurance 

companies 271-274 

Defrosting of pipes (Fig. 127) 215-217 

Deodorizing tanks 33 

Deodorizing tank houses 69-71 

Diseased carcasses 293 

Disinfection, facilities for 292 

Door openings and fire insurance 

rates 272 

Doors, cold storage 218-228 

refrigerator 218-234 

bolted to channel iron bucks 

(Fig. 129) 222 

bolted to fire door (Fig. 133) 

226-228 

construction (Fig. 128). 218, 219 

home made (Fig. 134) 228 

how to order 225 

in brick wall (Fig. 130) 222 

in cork board partition 

(Fig. 128) 221 

in double wall insulation 

(Fig. 131) 224 

right and left hand, how to 

distinguish (Fig. 132) 225 

with overhead track ...224, 225 
Double-wall insulation (Fig. 98). 170, 171 

Double freezer rack (Fig. 126) 216 

Drainage, Bureau of Animal Industry 

requirements 107 

Drains (see Floor drains) 

Dressing room and toilet station.... 22 

Drip pan, construction of 65 

Drop-off gallery 55 

Drop-off hoist . . _. 49 

"Dry system" sprinklers 123 

E 

Edible and inedible products, separa- 
tion of 294, 295 

Elevators 269 

Elevators, separate for edible and in- 
edible products 17, 18 

Elevators and fire insurance rates. . . 272 

Estimating prices 275, 276 

Equipment, cold storage building, 

costs 147 

Exchangers, in absorption machines 

. 206, 207 

Expansion, planning for 19 

Expansion of building capacity, lat- 
eral or vertical ? 19 

Exposures 269, 270 

Exposures and fire protection. . . .260, 261 

F 

Fertilizer, pressing and drying 27 

Fertilizer driers 74 

Fertilizer press, hydraulic 73 

trackage for (Fig. 54) 79 

Fire buckets 271 

Fire doors 261-264 

in cooler building 23 

Fire hose 271 

Fireproof construction, packing plant 21 

Fireproofing, tank houses 69 

windows (Fig. 138) 234 

Fire-retarding insulation ,161 

Fire-retarding windows 264 

Fire walls ; . . . . 260 



TOPICAL INDEX 



299 



Page 

Fire walls and fire insurance 260 

Fire walls in packing plants 21 

Fire pit doors, in smoke house 

(Fig. 61) 89 

Fire pit and smoke, separated loca- 
tion (Fig. 63) 91 

Firing pits in smoke house, location. 

26-39 

Floor construction, tank houses 69 

Floor finish, concrete floors. .. .242, 243 

Floor gutters 246 

Floor hardness 243, 244 

Floor loads 280-283 

determination of (table) 281-283 

Flooring materials 236 

Floors, asphalt 237 

brick 244, 245 

caulked wood 237 

monolithic concrete 240 

wood 236, 237 

waterproofing 236-242 

insulation of (Fig. 11) 133, 134 

Floors, concrete, over wood floors. . 

239 240 

gutters in' '(Fig. ' 139) '. '. '. '. '. '. ". 246', 247 
"Foots," treatment and disposal of . . 33 
Freezer rack, double (Fig. 126) .... 216 

Freezer windows (Fig. 137).. 233 

Friction hoist, construction (Fig. 33) 

49, 50 

Fungi, conditions favorable to 100 

prevention of growth by dry heat 100 

G 

Gardner's curtain system (Fig. 44).. 66 

Gutters, cellar floor 249 

Gutters, floor gutters 246 

in concrete floors (Fig. 139) . . 

246, 247 

in cellar floors 249 

wood (Fig. 140) 247-249 

Government inspectors, office rooms 

for _ 288 

Generators, in absorption machines. 206 
Granulated cork, as insulating ma- 
terial 165, 166 

filling between studding with 

, (Fig. 105) 178 

screened and unscreened. ... 165, 166 
Grease catch basin 110 

H 

Hair felt as insulating material 163 

Hair cracks, in Portland cement. 197, 198 

Ham cooler 25 

Hangers, for ceiling coils (Fig. 123) 213 
for pipe coils in freezers (Fig. 

125) _ _. .. 214 

for refrigerating pipes (Figs. 

121-125) 211-214 

for refrigerating pipes over beef 

coolers (Fig. 121) 211 

for refrigerating pipes over hog 

coolers (Fig. 122) 212 

for wall pipes (Fig. 124) 214 

Hanging capacity, hog coolers 24 

Hanging rails 18 

per section in cooler building... 18 

Hardware, on doors 219, 220 

Heating 271 

Heating coils in smoke houses 83 

Hinged windows (Figs. 136, 137)... 

231, 232 

Hog cutting room (Fig. 39) 56 



Page 

Hog killing, equipment for 22 

Hog killing floor, arrangement of 

(Fig. 36) 52 

floor plan (Fig. 37) 52 

Hog pens (Fig. 22) 36 

Hog wheel, construction and opera- 
tion 53 

Hoxie, F. J., on prevention of growth 

of fungi 101 

I 

Ice-making plant 29 

Ice tank insulation (Figs. 116, 117, 

118) ., 190-192 

Icing of refrigerator cars (Fig. 15).. 29 

Impregnated cork board 167 

Indurated fibre board, standard size. 164 

Inserts in concrete ceilings 250 

Installation of doors 220-223 

Installation of equipment 276, 277 

Insulating paper 196, 197 

Insulation, attic, columns, roof 135 

beams in outer walls (Fig. 76).. 132 
cold storage walls (Fig. 75).... 129 

construction details 169, 170 

durability of . 160, 161 

fire resisting qualities of 161 

of brine tanks (Figs. 116, 117) 

189-192 

of columns (Fig. 83) 144 

of fire walls 132 

of floors (Fig. 11) 133, 134 

of ice tanks (Figs. 116, 117, 

118) 190-192 

on concrete ceiling (Fig. 110).. 184 

impervious to odors 161 

interior finish for 162 

nailed to ceiling joists 185 

on partition between freezer and 

cold storage room 132 

sanitary requirements for 161 

stiffening by metal lath of 199 

structural strength of 161, 162 

theory of 162 

Insurance, effect of location of power 

plant on 149 

Insurance and fire protection. .. .258-274 

Insurance rates ^ 137 

cause of high, for packing houses 
and cold storage plants. . . .258, 259 

K 

Kettle rendered lard, equipment for 

rendering 26 

Keene's white cement finish. ... 198, 199 

Killing capacity, expansion for 19 

Killing floor ..14, 19 

incline and construction of (Fig. 

31) 52 

paving for 52 

Knocking pfens (Fig. 32) 49 

L 

Ladders 271 

Lard, hashing and melting 39 

storage of 25, 38 

Lard refinery, equipment for (Fig. 

18) ■■ 39 

location of 25, 26 

Lath, metal, as stift'ening for insula- 
tion 199 

Laundry 31 

Lavatories ^^J- 

Leaf lard cooler 24 



300 



TOPICAL INDEX 



Page 
Light, natural, requirements of Bu- 
reau of Animal Industry 15 

Lighting 15, 16 

Lighting tank houses 69, 12 

Lith as insulating material 165 

Load per square foot 124 

Loading court (Fig. 144)... 120, 121, 251 
Loading room, beef and sheep killing 

plant 30 

Lockers 110 

Lumber, as insulating material, kinds 

used 195, 196 

in cooler buildings 99 

in packing house construction. 99-106 

M 

Manufacturing building, location.... IS 

Meat sorting rooms 24 

Merchants Cold Storage & Ware- 
house Co., Chicago, 111. (longi- 
tudinal section, Fig. 81) 142 

"Mercury" or "Kyanizing" process 

of wood preservation 105 

Mill construction, cold storage build- 
ings 122, 123 

Mill construction and concrete con- 
struction, comparative costs. . 

278-279 

Mill shavings as insulating material 

162-163 

Mineral wool as insulating material. . 164 

Mineral wool blocks 164 

Moisture on ceilings, insulation 

against 189 

Monolithic concrete floors 240 

O 

Odors, imperviousness of insulation 

to 161 

Offal chutes 51 

Offal cleaning 35 

Offal cooler , 24 

in beef and sheep killing plant. . 30 

Offal department 14 

Offices, location 135, 136 

Oleo oil department, location and 

equipment 23 

Oleo oil presses 23 

Oleo oil, storage 23 

Oleo and bone cooking departments, 
location in large plants, in 

small plants 14 

Oleo press, drive for (Fig. 145).. 252, 253 

Overflow water from condenser plant 37 

Overhead track supports 250 

P 

Packing and slaughter house sched- 
ule for the middle West out- 
side of Chicago 270-274 

Packing houses, cost of 277 

first floor plan for (Fig. 1).... 

IJetween pages 28 and 29 

height of and insurance rates. 270, 271 

refrigeration in 208-217 

selection of site 

in large and small cities. 11, 12 

near water fronts 12 

near water supply 12 

railway connections 13 

sanitary requirements 12 

wagon road connections.... 13 



Page 
Packing plant, capacity and con- 
struction ; 21, 22 

fireproof construction for 21 

grouping of buildings in 13 

Paints and painting 254-257 

Painting walls with asphaltum. . 172, 173 
Paper as insulation (see Insulating 

paper) 

Partitions ........................ 269 

insulated (Figs. 101-107) 174-180 

insulation for 174-181 

cork board in cement mortar 

(Fig. 102) ..,, 174-176 

cork and wood stvidding (Fig. 

103) 176, 177 

cork and title (Fig. 104) 178 

granulated cork filling between 
studding (Figs. 105, 106) .. 179-181 

Partition wall insulation 133 

Party walls, strength of 20 

Paunch and gut chutes (Fig. 34).... 51 

Paving, stock yard 28 

V Pipe covering 192-195 

Pipe lofts, arrangement of air ducts 

in 64 

construction of (Fig. 42) 64 

divided into sections or tunnels 

63, 64 

Pipes, defrosting (Fig. 127) 215-217 

underground,, insulation of (Fig. 

120) 194, 195 

Pine, southern, in packing house con- 
struction 103, 104 

Plastering . .• 184 

asbestos fibres in 198 

on insulation 197, 198 

Plumbing, Bureau of Animal Indus- 
try requireinents 107 

Pork building, location for 24 

Power plant, location for 149 

Pork coolers, capacity per foot of 

rail space 24 

location for 24 

Portland cement, hair cracks in. .197, 198 

Pressed tankage, conveyance for 27 

Pressed blood drier. 27 

Pumps, for absorption machines.... 206 

R 

Railroad siding 21, 22 

Railway trackage (Fig. 93) 156 

in beef and sheep killing room. . 27 

Rails, transferring 18 

Rates, cold storage (table) 286 

Refrigeration, calculation of require- 
ments 202, 209, 210 

cost to packer of 59 

curtain system for. . 66 

in packing houses 208-217 

volumetric comparisons in 201 

Refrigerator doors (see Doors, re- 
frigerator) 
equipment for (Figs. 85-87) . 144-148 
Refrigerating loft, construction of 

(Fig. 40) 60, 61 

for spray system (Fig. 44) 65 

Refrigerating pipes, in coolers. .210, 211 

over beef coolers (Fig. 121).... 211 

over hog coolers (Fig. 122).... 212 

Regranulated cork 166, 167 

Reinforced concrete columns, diame- 
ter of 124 

Rendering, equipment for 26 



TOPICAL INDEX 



301 



Page 

Rendering tank .(Fig. 49) 74-79 

patented cast iron head 74 

pipe connections (Fig. 50) 76 

suspension (Fig. 51) 78, 19 

Rendering tanks 27 

Retaining rooms, for inspection 22 

Resting pens (Fig. 30) 46, 47 

Roof, built in expectation of addi- 
tions ■ ■ 152 

Roof insulation, construction details 

(Fig. 115) 188 

Roofs ...268, 269 

Rosin in wood, percentage desirable 

103, 104 

Rotary fans, velocity of current, loca- 
tion of intake, operation 17 

Runway in stockyards (Fig. 68).... 98 

Runway, inclined, for cattle 22 

Runway, stock yard 28 

S 

Sales cooler, beef and sheep killing 

plant 31 

Salt meats, curing room 38 

Salt storage -23, 38 

Sanitation, plumbing and drainage. . 

....107-114 

Sausage cooking rooms, equipment 

for 39 

Sausage factory, location of 25 

Sausage hanging rooms 38 

Sausage meat cooler. 24 

Sausage meat preparing room, loca- 
tion and temperature 24 

Sausage rack (Fig. 66) 94, 95 

Sausage smokers 39 

arrangement of 93, 94 

location for 26 

Sawdust as insulating material, re- 
quirements and costs 163 

Scalding tub 55, 56 

Scale tanks _ 33 

Scraping machine (Fig. 38) 55 

Shaft hanger supports (Fig. 143).. 

251-253 

Shafting, support for 252, 253 

Shackling pens .• • • • ^-^ 

Sheep killing room, rail heights 

(Fig. 29) 46 

Shipping coolers, location for...... 15 

Shipping room, beef and sheep killing 

plant 31 

Shower bath, construction 110, 111 

Skimming box (Figs. 52, 53). 27, 78, 19 

Skimmings, disposal of 28 

Skyhghts .". 16 

Skylights and fire insurance rates 

_ 264, 265 

Slaughter house, communication with 

cooler building 23 

Smoke house doors (Fig. 60) 88 

Smoke houses as fire risks 82 

communications with 26 

door sill of 87 

firing pits for _ 39 

hanging of meat in (Fig. 62) .... 90 

heating coils for 83 

ventilating flues in 87 

wall construction of 83 

Smoked hams and bacon, hanging 

rooms for 26 

Smoked meats hanging rooms 38 

Smoking capacity of smoke houses. . 86 



Page 

Spray system of refrigeration, loft for 65 

Splitting hoist 49 

space required for 38 

Sprinklers 265, 266 

"dry" and "wet" systems of.... 123 
Sprinklers and fire insurance rates. 

265, 266 

Stairways and elevators, fire risk. .270-272 

Standpipes 270 

Stearine, storage of 23 

Steel work, painting of 256 

Sticking pen, floor construction of . . 55 

Sticking rails 55 

Stock pens 96 

Stock yards 36, 37 

deck construction for 98 

sectional view of (Fig. 67) 91 

Stock yards paving 28 

Stock yards runway 28 

Stock yards storage capacity 98 

Storage pens . 22, 30 

Storage and shipping coolers (Fig. 9) 31 
Subsidies (Canadian) for cold stor- 
age plants lis, 119 

Sweet pickled meats, washing room 

for 26 

T 

Tallow storage 23 

Tankage (pressed), conveyance of... 27 

Tankage, drying and storage of 27 

Tankage disintegrator 27 

Tank house 14 

as fire risk 69 

air washing tower for 70, 71 

cooking rooms of 31 

division wall in 26 

floor construction of 69 

mill construction for 19 

Tank house. The 69-73 

sanitary condition 69 

fioor construction 69 

lighting 69, 72 

ventilation 69, 72 

equipment 70, 73 

elimination of odors 69-71 

cellar floor plans (Fig. 45).... 70 

first floor plans (Fig. 46) 71 

second floor plans (Fig. 47).... 72 

sectional view (Fig. 48) 73 

^ ventilating court of 36 

Tank house division walls, require- 
ments of Bureau of Animal 

Indvistry 27 

Tank water evaporation equipment.. 27 
Temperatures, cold storage and 
freezing temperatures for vari- 
ous products (table) 283-288 

Temporary walls, construction of. ... 20 

Tierced goods, storage of . ._ . 31 

Tile and co^k as insulation (Fig. 

104) 178 

Tile, hollow in walls 175 

Toilet rooms, access to. ... 35 

location and construction of... 

107, 108, 292 

Trackage, railway (see Railway 

Track supports, overhead (Fig. 142). 250 
Trolleys, portable, in smoke houses 

(Figs. 64, 65) 92, 93 

Tunnels, cost of construction of_. ... 18 
under railway tracks (for pipes, 

etc.) 18 



302 



TOPICAL INDEX 



Page 
U 

Underground pipes, insulation of 

(Fig. 120) 194, 195 

Urinals 292 

V 

Vapor condenser (Fig. 52) 78 

Ventilating flues in smoke houses. ... 87' 
Ventilation, mechanical, in vapor- 
charged rooms 17 

natural 17 

outside, desirability of 16 

tank house 69-72 

Ventilators, Texas or additions on 

roof 270 

Vestibules 260, 268 

fireproof 18 

and fire insurance 160 

Viaduct connections 268 

and insurance rates 274 

W 

Wall insulation (Figs. 99, 110). 172, 173 

Wall pipes, hangers for (Fig. 124).. 214 

Walls, construction of (Fig. 82) . . . 143 

hollow tile and vitrified brick 

for (Fig. 75) 130 

painting with asphaltum. . . . 172, 173 

painting of 172, 173 

Warm air duct partition, construc- 
tion of 65, 66 



Page 

Wash rail 49 

Water reservoir, in boiler and en- 
gine room 28 

Water supply, for ammonia con- 
densers 121 

Waterproofing 236-242 

wood floors 236, 237 

concrete floors 241, 242 

Weak liquor cooler 207 

Wearing floor, wood on cork board 

(Fig. 114) 188 

"Wet system" sprinklers 123 

Whitewash 256, 257 

Wholesale market and shipping 

cooler 24 

Windows, air tight sealing of 230 

cold storage (types of) 230-234 

distance below ceiling for 16 

fireproof (Fig. 138) 234 

fire-retarding 264 

freezer (Fig. 137). 233 

height above floor line for 16 

stationary 231 

wire glass . 16 

Wire floors in smoke houses (Fig. 

59) 87 

Wire glass windows 16 

Wood floors 236, 237 

Woodwork, painting of.... 196, 255, 256 
Wood preservatives, chemical 105 

Y 

"Yellow oil" 32, 33 



ADVERTISEMENTS 



303 



DOORS 



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3 




in wall to receive these 



I 



DOORS are just a big valve, and are a weak point in all cold storage. 
Insulation is important, tightness and quickness are vastly more so. 
Leaks are an endless expense. Doors that bind and work badly are shut 
only when the workman can find no excuse for leaving them open, which 
is seldom, if ever. 

The diagrams show a patented construction, contrived to avoid these 
troubles. The thick portion of the door fits loosely, so that considerable 
change of size, form and position, due to wear, swelling, etc., does not 
make it leak or bind. 

The door is held to its seat against the front of the door fram.e, by 
powerful elastic hinges. Its self-acting Roller Fastener has enormous 
strength — is arranged for pad-lock — no slackening, as it latches — the soft 
hemp gasket in the joint is always in sight. A mere touch, frees and 
opens it from either side. 

Old style doors when they 
work badly or leak, must be 
eased, thus forever destroy- 
ing their fit. A slight re- 
adjustment of the door 
frame of these doors, re- 
stores them to perfect fit 
and freedom in a minute, at 
no expense. 

As they do not stand in 
the doorway when open, its 
width can be six inches less 
than old style doorways — 
an important economy in re- 
frigeration. 

As constructed in this year. 1913, the opening 
door frames should be 3^ inches wider and 4^ inches higher than the 
clear size of the doorway. Follow construction numbered 1 and 2. 

For Overhead Track doors this rough opening should extend 13^ 
inches above the lower edge of the track bar. Door frames are secured 
with lag screws J^x4 inches inserted through front casing, inserted at A. 
Fig. B shows wooden beveled threshold 1 Y^ inches thick. 
Connects lower ends of door frame, forms part of it and is let 
down into the floor. No feather edge, no jolt, no splinters. For 
warehouses. Accommodation Trucks. 

Fig. C, concrete floors : shows lower ends of door frame 
extending down into the floor 3 inches, and connected by angle- 
irons extending across doorway from one side to the other, below 
the surface. 

Fig. S shows door frame 
with full standard sill and 
head, used on all sizes of 
door frames. Suited only to 
walking through. 

Special Freezer doors, on 
a modified plan for inter- 
mittent or continuous freezers, as well as for general purposes. Perfectly 
tight and perfectly free regardless of temperature, moisture or accumu- 
lation of ice in any degree. 

Metal covered Fireproof Doors. 

Revolving Ice Cream Doors — (Iron). Do not swell and bind. 
Combined self-closing Ice Door and Chute (jif three styles. Ice 
Counters. 

Form of specification : To guard against infringers and substitutes 
for our work, specifications should read, "Cold storage doors and door- 
frames with self-tightening hinges and fastener, complete, to be furnished 
by Stevenson Cold Storage Door Co., Chester, Pa." 

Patents are granted~or applied for on every valuable feature of this 
work. Infringers will be prosecuted. 

STEVENSON COLD STORAGE DOOR CO. 



fTFm: 



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^§ 




Chester, Pa. 



304 



ADVERTISEMENTS 



LARSEN ADVANCED ENGINEERING 




A new combination in refrigerating design; motor, condenser, oil separator, liquid pre- 
cooler, accumulator and receiver, all mounted in one compact unit. Requires no fastening 
or foundation — occupies less space than any other refrigerating machine. A model of 
simplicity and efficiency. Made in three sizes — Model "A." 1% to 2 ton capacity; Model 
"C," 4 to 5 ton capacity; Model "E," 8 to 10 ton capacity. We manufacture machines 
up to 100-ton capacity. 

We are also specialists in designing and building of raw water ice plants and ice-cream 
plants of the most approved design and economy. 





^^^^ ^ 



Above is a photo of our exhibit at the "International Refrigerating Congress." This 
classy rig consists of our l.S-ton compressor, 20 to 25-ton shell ammonia condenser, 20 to 
25-ton Flooded Brine Cooler, Liquid Cooler and Accumulator, Electric Brine Pump and 
Compressor Motor. The above unit had less than 25 feet of pipe in the job all told, and 
for ten days and nights cooled 80 gallons of brine 8 degrees per minute (over 25 tons of 
work). 

Send for Circulars or Catalog. 

LarSCn Ice iMaCnineLOinpany,lnC., SalesOHice.ieiSConwayBldg., Chicago 



ADVERTISEMENTS 



305 




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306 ADVERTISEMENTS 



H. P. HENSCHIEN 

Architect 

37 West Van Buren Street 
Chicago, 111. 



Packing Plants 
Cold Storage Buildings 
Ice Manufacturing Plants 




COVERS ' 

THE CONTINENT"' 



ADVERTISEMENTS 307 

Johns-Manville Service 

applied to 

Cold Storage Insulation 



Put Your Cold Storage Installation 
in our hands-it will be handled right 

The conditions under which you do business must be studied out before 
your refrigerating requirements can be met successfully. 

We make a study of what your needs are before we attempt to supply 
them. The J-M Line is so complete that it embraces every approved insulat- 
ing material for cold storage purposes. 

We are insulation engineers of many years' experience, and are prepared 
to plan and install for you the type of insulation our experience shows us the 
conditions demand. 

Let US help you lower temperatures 

H. W. JOHNS-MANVILLE CO. 

New York and all large cities 



Cork Insulation 

Furnished and erected complete 



United Cork Companies 

OF New York 

Factories: Lyndhurst, N. J. 

New York Office Chicago Office Philadelphia Office 

50 Church St. 110 So. Dearborn St. Broad & Chestnut Sts. 

Hudson Ter. Bldg. Westminster Bldg. Land Title Bldg. 



308 ADVERTISEMENTS 



Practical 



Storage 



This work embraces the entire 
subject of cold storage from 
the organizing and starting of 
^^ a cold store to the care, hand- 

M^ 1 1 ling and shipping of perish- 

1^^\IA1 ables under refrigeration. 

^^^^*^* The book unfolds progres- 

sively all of the ramifications 
of the business that are of 
practical interest and value to 
_ the operator of cold storage 

by Madison Cooper warehouses, large or small. 

Revised and Greatly Enlarged "^^^ ^"^J^^* ^^"^'^ ^^ ^y^*^™" 
' * atically arranged in 42 

SECOND EDITION chapters. 

The volume is 93^ by 63^ inches in size containing 816 pages. 
It is replete with illustrations and is printed on heavy half tone 
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Nickerson & Collins Co., Publishers 

431 South Dearborn Street Chicago 



The Modern Packing House 

By F. W. WILDER 

The Construction and Operation of Packing Houses. 

The Costs and Profits of Killing and Dressing Cattle, Hogs and Sheep. 
The Treatment of all By-Products, Yields, Costs and Profits. 
Formulae for Curing and Preserving all Packing House Products. 
Formulae for Making and Preserving all kinds of Sausage, etc. 
Formulae and Temperatures for Oleo Oil, Stearine, Lard and Butterine. 
Also gives a vast amount of other useful and valuable information never 
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Told for the first time by a man who knows 

ppi^p J Bound in Cloth - $10.00 
rKlL.L-j 3^^^ J j^ p^jj Morocco 12.00 

Sent Prepaid to Any Address Upon Receipt of Price 

NICKERSON & COLLINS CO. 

431 South Dearborn Street, Chicago 



ADVERTISEMENTS 309 



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STORAGE RATE GUIDE 

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Price I ^"^"^^ i" ^^°th $1.00 Sent postpaid to any address 

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NICKERSON & COLLINS CO., Publishers 
431 So. Dearborn Street :: CHICAGO 



Second Edition 

MOHUN ON WAREHOUSEMEN 

A compilalion of Warehouse Laws and Decisions 
by Barry Mohun of the Bar of Washington, D. C. 

issued under the auspices of the American Warehousemen's Association 

Being a compilation of the laws of the several States and Territories pertaining to Warehouse- 
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1136 Pages, bound in Full Law Buckram. Price, expressage prepaid, $7.50 
NickerSOn & Collins Company, 431 so. Dearborn Mreet. Chicago 



LAW of DRAYMEN 

Freight Forwarders and Warehousemen 

a compilation of and commentary on. the Laws concerning Draymen, 
Freight Forwarders and Warehousemen. 

By Gustave H. Bunge, of the Chicago and Du Page Co. Bar 

All of the recently enacted laws affecting the business are included. Contains Pfjpp <KC AA 
many forms in daily use in this business. Sent prepaid upon receipt of mi-C tPiJ.UV 

NICKERSON & COLLINS CO., Publishers 

431 So. Dearborn St., Chicago 



310 



ADVERTISEMENTS 



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The Recognized Authority 

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A Monthly Review of the Ice, 
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SUBSCRIPTION PRICE 
In U. S. Possessions and Mexico, $2.00 per year. 
In all other countries . . , , 3.00 per year. 

Nickerson & Collins Co. 

431 South Dearborn Street, Chicago 



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